echidna 0.9.0

//! Arbitrary differential operator evaluation via jet coefficients.
//!
//! Evaluate any mixed partial derivative of a recorded tape by constructing
//! higher-order Taylor jets with carefully chosen input coefficients. A single
//! forward pushforward extracts the derivative from a specific output jet
//! coefficient, scaled by a known prefactor from the multivariate Faa di Bruno
//! formula.
//!
//! # How it works
//!
//! For a function `u: R^n -> R` recorded as a [`BytecodeTape`], we want to
//! compute an arbitrary mixed partial:
//!
//! ```text
//! ∂^Q u / (∂x_{i₁}^{q₁} ... ∂x_{iT}^{qT})
//! ```
//!
//! The method parameterises a curve `g(t) = u(x₀ + v⁽¹⁾t + v⁽²⁾t²/2! + ...)`
//! where each active variable is assigned a distinct polynomial "slot" `j_t`,
//! with `coeffs[j_t] = 1/j_t!` for that variable's input. The output jet
//! coefficient at index `k = Σ j_t · q_t` then equals the target derivative
//! divided by a known prefactor.
//!
//! # Usage
//!
//! ```ignore
//! use echidna::diffop::{JetPlan, MultiIndex};
//!
//! // Record a tape
//! let (tape, _) = echidna::record(|x| x[0] * x[0] * x[1], &[1.0, 2.0]);
//!
//! // Plan: compute ∂²u/∂x₀² and ∂u/∂x₁
//! let indices = vec![
//!     MultiIndex::diagonal(2, 0, 2), // d²/dx₀²
//!     MultiIndex::partial(2, 1),      // d/dx₁
//! ];
//! let plan = JetPlan::plan(2, &indices);
//!
//! // Evaluate
//! let result = echidna::diffop::eval_dyn(&plan, &tape, &[1.0, 2.0]);
//! // result.derivatives[0] = 2*x₁ = 4.0  (∂²(x₀²x₁)/∂x₀²)
//! // result.derivatives[1] = x₀² = 1.0    (∂(x₀²x₁)/∂x₁)
//! ```
//!
//! # Design
//!
//! - **Plan once, evaluate many**: [`JetPlan::plan`] precomputes slot assignments,
//!   jet order, and extraction prefactors. Reuse the plan across evaluation points.
//! - **`TaylorDyn`** for runtime jet order: the required order depends on the
//!   differential operator and cannot be known at compile time.
//! - **Pushforward groups**: Multi-indices that share the same set of active
//!   variables are batched into one forward pass. Multi-indices with different
//!   active variables get separate pushforwards to avoid slot contamination.
//! - **Panics on misuse**: dimension mismatches panic, following existing API
//!   conventions.
//!
//! # Differential Operators
//!
//! [`DiffOp`] represents a linear differential operator `L = Σ C_α D^α`.
//! It supports exact evaluation via [`DiffOp::eval`] (delegates to `JetPlan`)
//! and construction of a [`SparseSamplingDistribution`] for stochastic
//! estimation via [`stde::stde_sparse`](crate::stde::stde_sparse) (requires
//! `stde` feature). Convenience constructors are provided for common operators:
//! [`DiffOp::laplacian`], [`DiffOp::biharmonic`], [`DiffOp::diagonal`].
//! Inhomogeneous operators can be decomposed with [`DiffOp::split_by_order`].

use crate::bytecode_tape::BytecodeTape;
use crate::taylor_dyn::{TaylorArenaLocal, TaylorDyn, TaylorDynGuard};
use crate::Float;

// ══════════════════════════════════════════════
//  MultiIndex
// ══════════════════════════════════════════════

/// A multi-index specifying which mixed partial derivative to compute.
///
/// `orders[i]` = how many times to differentiate with respect to variable `x_i`.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// - `[2, 0, 1]` represents `∂³u/(∂x₀²∂x₂)` (total order 3).
/// - `[0, 1]` represents `∂u/∂x₁` (first partial).
#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
pub struct MultiIndex {
    orders: Vec<u8>,
}

impl MultiIndex {
    /// Create a multi-index from a slice of per-variable differentiation orders.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if `orders` is empty.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new(orders: &[u8]) -> Self {
        assert!(
            !orders.is_empty(),
            "multi-index must have at least one variable"
        );
        MultiIndex {
            orders: orders.to_vec(),
        }
    }

    /// Multi-index for a single-variable diagonal derivative: `d^order u / dx_var^order`.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if `var >= num_vars` or `order == 0`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn diagonal(num_vars: usize, var: usize, order: u8) -> Self {
        assert!(var < num_vars, "var ({}) >= num_vars ({})", var, num_vars);
        assert!(order > 0, "order must be > 0");
        let mut orders = vec![0u8; num_vars];
        orders[var] = order;
        MultiIndex { orders }
    }

    /// Multi-index for a first partial: `∂u/∂x_var`.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if `var >= num_vars`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn partial(num_vars: usize, var: usize) -> Self {
        Self::diagonal(num_vars, var, 1)
    }

    /// Total differentiation order: `Σ orders[i]`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn total_order(&self) -> usize {
        self.orders.iter().map(|&o| o as usize).sum()
    }

    /// Active variables: indices where `orders[i] > 0`, paired with their order.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn active_vars(&self) -> Vec<(usize, u8)> {
        self.orders
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .filter(|(_, &o)| o > 0)
            .map(|(i, &o)| (i, o))
            .collect()
    }

    /// Number of variables in this multi-index.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn num_vars(&self) -> usize {
        self.orders.len()
    }

    /// The per-variable differentiation orders.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn orders(&self) -> &[u8] {
        &self.orders
    }

    /// Active variable indices only (sorted).
    fn active_var_set(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
        self.orders
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .filter(|(_, &o)| o > 0)
            .map(|(i, _)| i)
            .collect()
    }
}

// ══════════════════════════════════════════════
//  Partition utilities (internal)
// ══════════════════════════════════════════════

/// Enumerate all partitions of integer `k` using only the given slot values as parts.
///
/// Each partition is a list of `(slot, multiplicity)` pairs sorted by slot.
fn partitions_with_support(k: usize, slots: &[usize]) -> Vec<Vec<(usize, usize)>> {
    let mut results = Vec::new();
    let mut current = Vec::new();
    partitions_recurse(k, slots, 0, &mut current, &mut results);
    results
}

fn partitions_recurse(
    remaining: usize,
    slots: &[usize],
    start_idx: usize,
    current: &mut Vec<(usize, usize)>,
    results: &mut Vec<Vec<(usize, usize)>>,
) {
    if remaining == 0 {
        results.push(current.clone());
        return;
    }
    for idx in start_idx..slots.len() {
        let s = slots[idx];
        if s > remaining {
            continue;
        }
        let max_mult = remaining / s;
        for mult in 1..=max_mult {
            current.push((s, mult));
            partitions_recurse(remaining - s * mult, slots, idx + 1, current, results);
            current.pop();
        }
    }
}

/// Compute the extraction prefactor: `Π_t (q_t! · (j_t!)^{q_t})`.
///
/// Uses direct integer-like products for typical jet orders (exact in f64 for
/// factorials up to 18!) and falls back to a log-domain accumulation if the
/// product overflows. The direct path avoids the sub-ULP noise that
/// `exp(sum(log(i)))` would introduce for small orders, while the fallback
/// ensures that high-order calls return a clean `+inf` instead of NaN from
/// `inf * 1` or similar intermediate patterns.
fn extraction_prefactor<F: Float>(slot_assignments: &[(usize, u8)]) -> F {
    let mut prefactor = F::one();
    for &(slot, order) in slot_assignments {
        let mut q_fact = F::one();
        for i in 2..=(order as usize) {
            q_fact = q_fact * F::from(i).unwrap();
        }
        let mut j_fact = F::one();
        for i in 2..=slot {
            j_fact = j_fact * F::from(i).unwrap();
        }
        let mut j_fact_pow = F::one();
        for _ in 0..order {
            j_fact_pow = j_fact_pow * j_fact;
        }
        prefactor = prefactor * q_fact * j_fact_pow;
    }
    if prefactor.is_finite() {
        return prefactor;
    }
    // Integer-path overflow. Recompute in log-domain; if that also overflows,
    // we return `+inf` (exp saturates cleanly) rather than propagating NaN
    // from any earlier `inf * 1` multiply.
    let mut log_pref = F::zero();
    for &(slot, order) in slot_assignments {
        for i in 2..=(order as usize) {
            log_pref = log_pref + F::from(i).unwrap().ln();
        }
        let mut log_j_fact = F::zero();
        for i in 2..=slot {
            log_j_fact = log_j_fact + F::from(i).unwrap().ln();
        }
        log_pref = log_pref + F::from(order as usize).unwrap() * log_j_fact;
    }
    log_pref.exp()
}

// ══════════════════════════════════════════════
//  JetPlan
// ══════════════════════════════════════════════

/// A single extraction from a pushforward's output coefficients.
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
struct Extraction<F> {
    /// Index into the final derivatives vector.
    result_index: usize,
    /// Which output coefficient to read.
    output_coeff_index: usize,
    /// Multiply `coeffs[k]` by this to get the derivative value.
    prefactor: F,
}

/// A group of multi-indices that share one pushforward.
///
/// All multi-indices in a group must have the same set of active variables
/// (though possibly different orders).
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
struct PushforwardGroup<F> {
    /// Number of Taylor coefficients for this group.
    jet_order: usize,
    /// Input coefficient assignments: `(var_index, slot, 1/slot!)`.
    input_coeffs: Vec<(usize, usize, F)>,
    /// Extractions from this group's output.
    extractions: Vec<Extraction<F>>,
}

/// Immutable plan for jet evaluation. Constructed once, reused across points.
///
/// Use [`JetPlan::plan`] to create a plan from a set of multi-indices, then
/// pass it to [`eval_dyn`] to evaluate at specific points.
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
pub struct JetPlan<F> {
    /// Max jet order across all groups.
    max_jet_order: usize,
    /// Pushforward groups.
    groups: Vec<PushforwardGroup<F>>,
    /// The multi-indices, in order.
    multi_indices: Vec<MultiIndex>,
}

/// First primes for slot assignment.
const PRIMES: [usize; 20] = [
    2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71,
];

/// Check whether ALL multi-indices in a group can be cleanly extracted
/// with the given variable-to-slot mapping. Returns `Ok(extractions, max_k)`
/// if collision-free, or `Err(())` if any collision exists.
fn try_slots<F: Float>(
    var_slot: &[(usize, usize)],
    multi_indices_with_idx: &[(usize, &MultiIndex)],
) -> Result<(Vec<Extraction<F>>, usize), ()> {
    let group_slots: Vec<usize> = var_slot.iter().map(|&(_, s)| s).collect();
    let mut extractions = Vec::new();
    let mut max_k = 0usize;

    for &(result_index, mi) in multi_indices_with_idx {
        let active = mi.active_vars();

        if active.is_empty() {
            extractions.push(Extraction {
                result_index,
                output_coeff_index: 0,
                prefactor: F::one(),
            });
            continue;
        }

        let slot_orders: Vec<(usize, u8)> = active
            .iter()
            .map(|&(var, order)| {
                let slot = var_slot.iter().find(|(v, _)| *v == var).unwrap().1;
                (slot, order)
            })
            .collect();

        let k: usize = slot_orders.iter().map(|&(s, q)| s * q as usize).sum();

        let partitions = partitions_with_support(k, &group_slots);

        let mut target_partition: Vec<(usize, usize)> = slot_orders
            .iter()
            .map(|&(slot, order)| (slot, order as usize))
            .collect();
        target_partition.sort_by_key(|&(s, _)| s);

        let collision = partitions.iter().any(|p| {
            let mut sorted = p.clone();
            sorted.sort_by_key(|&(s, _)| s);
            sorted != target_partition
        });

        if collision {
            return Err(());
        }

        let prefactor = extraction_prefactor::<F>(&slot_orders);
        max_k = max_k.max(k);

        extractions.push(Extraction {
            result_index,
            output_coeff_index: k,
            prefactor,
        });
    }

    Ok((extractions, max_k))
}

/// Plan slot assignment for a single group of multi-indices that share
/// the same set of active variables.
fn plan_group<F: Float>(
    active_var_set: &[usize],
    multi_indices_with_idx: &[(usize, &MultiIndex)],
) -> PushforwardGroup<F> {
    let t = active_var_set.len();
    assert!(
        t <= PRIMES.len(),
        "too many active variables ({}) — max supported is {}",
        t,
        PRIMES.len()
    );

    // Sort active variables by max order descending (highest-order gets smallest prime)
    let mut var_max_order: Vec<(usize, u8)> = active_var_set
        .iter()
        .map(|&var| {
            let max_ord = multi_indices_with_idx
                .iter()
                .map(|(_, mi)| mi.orders()[var])
                .max()
                .unwrap_or(0);
            (var, max_ord)
        })
        .collect();
    var_max_order.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.cmp(&a.1).then(a.0.cmp(&b.0)));

    // Try prime windows: PRIMES[offset..offset+t], incrementing offset on collision
    let max_offset = PRIMES.len() - t;
    for offset in 0..=max_offset {
        let var_slot: Vec<(usize, usize)> = var_max_order
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .map(|(i, &(var, _))| (var, PRIMES[offset + i]))
            .collect();

        if let Ok((extractions, max_k)) = try_slots::<F>(&var_slot, multi_indices_with_idx) {
            let input_coeffs: Vec<(usize, usize, F)> = var_slot
                .iter()
                .map(|&(var, slot)| {
                    let mut factorial = F::one();
                    for i in 2..=slot {
                        factorial = factorial * F::from(i).unwrap();
                    }
                    (var, slot, F::one() / factorial)
                })
                .collect();

            return PushforwardGroup {
                jet_order: max_k + 1,
                input_coeffs,
                extractions,
            };
        }
    }

    panic!(
        "failed to find collision-free slot assignment for active vars {:?}",
        active_var_set
    );
}

impl<F: Float> JetPlan<F> {
    /// Plan jet evaluation for a set of multi-indices.
    ///
    /// Groups multi-indices by their active variable set, assigns collision-free
    /// slots within each group, and precomputes extraction prefactors.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if `multi_indices` is empty, if any multi-index has wrong `num_vars`,
    /// or if slot assignment fails.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn plan(num_vars: usize, multi_indices: &[MultiIndex]) -> Self {
        assert!(
            !multi_indices.is_empty(),
            "must provide at least one multi-index"
        );
        for mi in multi_indices {
            assert_eq!(
                mi.num_vars(),
                num_vars,
                "multi-index num_vars ({}) != expected ({})",
                mi.num_vars(),
                num_vars
            );
        }

        // Group multi-indices by their active variable set
        type GroupEntry<'a> = (Vec<usize>, Vec<(usize, &'a MultiIndex)>);
        let mut group_map: Vec<GroupEntry<'_>> = Vec::new();

        for (i, mi) in multi_indices.iter().enumerate() {
            let active_set = mi.active_var_set();
            if let Some(entry) = group_map.iter_mut().find(|(set, _)| *set == active_set) {
                entry.1.push((i, mi));
            } else {
                group_map.push((active_set, vec![(i, mi)]));
            }
        }

        // Plan each group
        let mut groups = Vec::with_capacity(group_map.len());
        let mut max_jet_order = 1;

        for (active_set, members) in &group_map {
            let group = plan_group::<F>(active_set, members);
            max_jet_order = max_jet_order.max(group.jet_order);
            groups.push(group);
        }

        JetPlan {
            max_jet_order,
            groups,
            multi_indices: multi_indices.to_vec(),
        }
    }

    /// The maximum jet order across all groups.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn jet_order(&self) -> usize {
        self.max_jet_order
    }

    /// The multi-indices this plan computes, in order.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn multi_indices(&self) -> Vec<MultiIndex> {
        self.multi_indices.clone()
    }
}

// ══════════════════════════════════════════════
//  Result type
// ══════════════════════════════════════════════

/// Result of evaluating a differential operator via jet coefficients.
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
pub struct DiffOpResult<F> {
    /// Function value `u(x)`.
    pub value: F,
    /// Computed derivatives, in the same order as the plan's multi-indices.
    pub derivatives: Vec<F>,
    /// The multi-indices that were computed.
    pub multi_indices: Vec<MultiIndex>,
}

// ══════════════════════════════════════════════
//  Evaluation
// ══════════════════════════════════════════════

/// Evaluate a differential operator plan using `TaylorDyn` (runtime jet order).
///
/// Each pushforward group gets its own forward pass with only the relevant
/// slot coefficients set. This ensures clean extraction without slot
/// contamination from non-active variables.
///
/// # Panics
///
/// Panics if `x.len()` does not match `tape.num_inputs()`.
pub fn eval_dyn<F: Float + TaylorArenaLocal>(
    plan: &JetPlan<F>,
    tape: &BytecodeTape<F>,
    x: &[F],
) -> DiffOpResult<F> {
    let n = tape.num_inputs();
    assert_eq!(
        x.len(),
        n,
        "x.len() ({}) must match tape.num_inputs() ({})",
        x.len(),
        n
    );

    let num_results = plan.multi_indices.len();
    let mut derivatives = vec![F::zero(); num_results];
    // `value` is overwritten by the first non-empty group's pushforward.
    // For the degenerate empty-plan case (no groups), zero is a defensible
    // default — the previous `Σx[i]` placeholder looked plausible but
    // silently returned the sum of inputs if the plan had no groups,
    // which is a latent wrong-answer hazard.
    let mut value = F::zero();

    for group in &plan.groups {
        let _guard = TaylorDynGuard::<F>::new(group.jet_order);

        // Build inputs: only set slot coefficients for this group's active variables
        let inputs: Vec<TaylorDyn<F>> = (0..n)
            .map(|i| {
                let mut coeffs = vec![F::zero(); group.jet_order];
                coeffs[0] = x[i];
                for &(var, slot, inv_fact) in &group.input_coeffs {
                    if var == i && slot < group.jet_order {
                        coeffs[slot] = inv_fact;
                    }
                }
                TaylorDyn::from_coeffs(&coeffs)
            })
            .collect();

        let mut buf = Vec::new();
        tape.forward_tangent(&inputs, &mut buf);

        let out_coeffs = buf[tape.output_index()].coeffs();
        value = out_coeffs[0];

        for extraction in &group.extractions {
            derivatives[extraction.result_index] =
                out_coeffs[extraction.output_coeff_index] * extraction.prefactor;
        }
    }

    DiffOpResult {
        value,
        derivatives,
        multi_indices: plan.multi_indices.clone(),
    }
}

// ══════════════════════════════════════════════
//  Convenience functions
// ══════════════════════════════════════════════

/// Compute a single mixed partial derivative (plans + evaluates in one call).
///
/// Returns `(value, derivative)` where `value = u(x)` and `derivative` is the
/// mixed partial specified by `orders`.
///
/// When every order in `orders` is zero, the function returns
/// `(u(x), u(x))` — an all-zero multi-index is the identity operator, so
/// the "derivative" is just `u(x)` itself. This is the mathematically
/// correct answer and not an error. An earlier version of this docstring
/// claimed a panic; no such panic exists.
///
/// # Panics
///
/// Panics if `orders.len()` does not match `tape.num_inputs()`.
pub fn mixed_partial<F: Float + TaylorArenaLocal>(
    tape: &BytecodeTape<F>,
    x: &[F],
    orders: &[u8],
) -> (F, F) {
    // `eval_dyn` will assert `x.len() == tape.num_inputs()`, but a mismatch
    // between `orders.len()` and `tape.num_inputs()` silently generates a
    // MultiIndex of the wrong length, which then indexes past the tape's
    // input count during planning and yields a garbage partial derivative
    // without panicking. Catch the shape mismatch up front.
    assert_eq!(
        orders.len(),
        tape.num_inputs(),
        "mixed_partial: orders.len() must equal tape.num_inputs() \
         (got orders.len()={}, tape.num_inputs()={})",
        orders.len(),
        tape.num_inputs(),
    );
    let mi = MultiIndex::new(orders);
    let plan = JetPlan::plan(orders.len(), &[mi]);
    let result = eval_dyn(&plan, tape, x);
    (result.value, result.derivatives[0])
}

/// Compute the full Hessian (all second-order partial derivatives).
///
/// Returns `(value, gradient, hessian)` where:
/// - `gradient[i]` = `∂u/∂x_i`
/// - `hessian[i][j]` = `∂²u/(∂x_i ∂x_j)`
///
/// Each derivative requires its own pushforward group, so this performs
/// `n + n*(n+1)/2` forward passes. For large n, consider using
/// `tape.hessian()` instead.
///
/// # Panics
///
/// Panics if `x.len()` does not match `tape.num_inputs()`.
// Index variables i, j are used to construct MultiIndex values, index into `orders`,
// and fill both triangles of the symmetric Hessian matrix — iterators would obscure the
// mathematical indexing logic.
#[allow(clippy::needless_range_loop)]
pub fn hessian<F: Float + TaylorArenaLocal>(
    tape: &BytecodeTape<F>,
    x: &[F],
) -> (F, Vec<F>, Vec<Vec<F>>) {
    let n = tape.num_inputs();
    assert_eq!(x.len(), n, "x.len() must match tape.num_inputs()");

    let mut indices = Vec::with_capacity(n + n * (n + 1) / 2);

    // First-order partials
    for i in 0..n {
        indices.push(MultiIndex::partial(n, i));
    }

    // Second-order: diagonal and upper-triangle
    for i in 0..n {
        for j in i..n {
            let mut orders = vec![0u8; n];
            if i == j {
                orders[i] = 2;
            } else {
                orders[i] = 1;
                orders[j] = 1;
            }
            indices.push(MultiIndex::new(&orders));
        }
    }

    let plan = JetPlan::plan(n, &indices);
    let result = eval_dyn(&plan, tape, x);

    let gradient: Vec<F> = result.derivatives[..n].to_vec();

    let mut hess = vec![vec![F::zero(); n]; n];
    let mut idx = n;
    for i in 0..n {
        for j in i..n {
            let val = result.derivatives[idx];
            hess[i][j] = val;
            hess[j][i] = val;
            idx += 1;
        }
    }

    (result.value, gradient, hess)
}

// ══════════════════════════════════════════════
//  DiffOp: differential operator type
// ══════════════════════════════════════════════

/// A linear differential operator `L = Σ C_α D^α`.
///
/// Each term is a `(coefficient, multi-index)` pair. The operator can be
/// evaluated exactly via [`DiffOp::eval`] using [`JetPlan`], or used to build
/// a [`SparseSamplingDistribution`] for stochastic estimation.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```ignore
/// use echidna::diffop::DiffOp;
///
/// // Laplacian in 3 variables: ∂²/∂x₀² + ∂²/∂x₁² + ∂²/∂x₂²
/// let lap = DiffOp::laplacian(3);
///
/// // Biharmonic: ∂⁴/∂x₀⁴ + ∂⁴/∂x₁⁴ + ∂⁴/∂x₂⁴
/// let bih = DiffOp::biharmonic(3);
/// ```
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
pub struct DiffOp<F> {
    terms: Vec<(F, MultiIndex)>,
    num_vars: usize,
}

impl<F: Float> DiffOp<F> {
    /// Create a differential operator from explicit `(coefficient, multi-index)` pairs.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if `terms` is empty or any multi-index has wrong `num_vars`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn new(num_vars: usize, terms: Vec<(F, MultiIndex)>) -> Self {
        assert!(!terms.is_empty(), "DiffOp must have at least one term");
        for (_, mi) in &terms {
            assert_eq!(
                mi.num_vars(),
                num_vars,
                "multi-index num_vars ({}) != expected ({})",
                mi.num_vars(),
                num_vars
            );
        }
        DiffOp { terms, num_vars }
    }

    /// Create a differential operator from raw order slices.
    ///
    /// Each entry is `(coefficient, orders_slice)`.
    pub fn from_orders(num_vars: usize, terms: &[(F, &[u8])]) -> Self {
        let terms: Vec<(F, MultiIndex)> = terms
            .iter()
            .map(|&(c, orders)| (c, MultiIndex::new(orders)))
            .collect();
        Self::new(num_vars, terms)
    }

    /// Laplacian: `Σ_j ∂²/∂x_j²`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn laplacian(n: usize) -> Self {
        let terms = (0..n)
            .map(|j| (F::one(), MultiIndex::diagonal(n, j, 2)))
            .collect();
        DiffOp { terms, num_vars: n }
    }

    /// Biharmonic operator: `Δ² = (Σ_j ∂²/∂x_j²)²`.
    ///
    /// Expands to `Σ_j ∂⁴/∂x_j⁴ + 2 Σ_{j<k} ∂⁴/(∂x_j² ∂x_k²)`.
    ///
    /// For n=1, equivalent to `diagonal(1, 4)`. For n≥2, includes cross terms.
    /// Evaluation via [`eval`] uses exact jet arithmetic. Stochastic estimation
    /// via `stde_sparse` requires importance sampling (full deterministic sampling
    /// is biased when coefficients are non-uniform).
    #[must_use]
    pub fn biharmonic(n: usize) -> Self {
        let two = F::one() + F::one();
        let mut terms: Vec<(F, MultiIndex)> = (0..n)
            .map(|j| (F::one(), MultiIndex::diagonal(n, j, 4)))
            .collect();
        for j in 0..n {
            for k in (j + 1)..n {
                let mut orders = vec![0u8; n];
                orders[j] = 2;
                orders[k] = 2;
                terms.push((two, MultiIndex::new(&orders)));
            }
        }
        DiffOp { terms, num_vars: n }
    }

    /// k-th order diagonal: `Σ_j ∂^k/∂x_j^k`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn diagonal(n: usize, k: u8) -> Self {
        assert!(k >= 1, "diagonal order must be >= 1");
        let terms = (0..n)
            .map(|j| (F::one(), MultiIndex::diagonal(n, j, k)))
            .collect();
        DiffOp { terms, num_vars: n }
    }

    /// The terms of the operator.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn terms(&self) -> &[(F, MultiIndex)] {
        &self.terms
    }

    /// Number of variables.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn num_vars(&self) -> usize {
        self.num_vars
    }

    /// Maximum total order across all terms.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn order(&self) -> usize {
        self.terms
            .iter()
            .map(|(_, mi)| mi.total_order())
            .max()
            .unwrap_or(0)
    }

    /// True if every term has exactly one active variable (no mixed partials).
    #[must_use]
    pub fn is_diagonal(&self) -> bool {
        self.terms.iter().all(|(_, mi)| mi.active_vars().len() <= 1)
    }

    /// Split an inhomogeneous operator into groups of the same total order.
    ///
    /// Returns a vector of `DiffOp`, each containing terms with the same
    /// total order, sorted by increasing order.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn split_by_order(&self) -> Vec<DiffOp<F>> {
        let mut order_map: Vec<(usize, Vec<(F, MultiIndex)>)> = Vec::new();
        for (c, mi) in &self.terms {
            let ord = mi.total_order();
            if let Some(entry) = order_map.iter_mut().find(|(o, _)| *o == ord) {
                entry.1.push((*c, mi.clone()));
            } else {
                order_map.push((ord, vec![(*c, mi.clone())]));
            }
        }
        order_map.sort_by_key(|(o, _)| *o);
        order_map
            .into_iter()
            .map(|(_, terms)| DiffOp {
                terms,
                num_vars: self.num_vars,
            })
            .collect()
    }
}

impl<F: Float + TaylorArenaLocal> DiffOp<F> {
    /// Exact evaluation: compute `Lu(x)` via [`JetPlan`].
    ///
    /// Returns `(value, operator_value)`.
    pub fn eval(&self, tape: &BytecodeTape<F>, x: &[F]) -> (F, F) {
        let multi_indices: Vec<MultiIndex> = self.terms.iter().map(|(_, mi)| mi.clone()).collect();
        let plan = JetPlan::plan(self.num_vars, &multi_indices);
        let result = eval_dyn(&plan, tape, x);

        let mut op_value = F::zero();
        for (i, (c, _)) in self.terms.iter().enumerate() {
            op_value = op_value + *c * result.derivatives[i];
        }

        (result.value, op_value)
    }

    /// Build a [`SparseSamplingDistribution`] for stochastic estimation.
    ///
    /// Requires all terms to have the same total order k (homogeneous operator).
    /// Use [`split_by_order`](DiffOp::split_by_order) to decompose inhomogeneous
    /// operators first.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the operator is not homogeneous (mixed total orders).
    #[must_use]
    pub fn sparse_distribution(&self) -> SparseSamplingDistribution<F> {
        let k = self.terms[0].1.total_order();
        for (_, mi) in &self.terms {
            assert_eq!(
                mi.total_order(),
                k,
                "sparse_distribution requires homogeneous operator: \
                 found order {} and order {}",
                k,
                mi.total_order()
            );
        }

        let mut entries = Vec::with_capacity(self.terms.len());
        let mut cumulative = F::zero();

        for (coeff, mi) in &self.terms {
            let abs_c = coeff.abs();
            cumulative = cumulative + abs_c;

            // Use plan_group to get collision-free slot assignments
            let active_set = mi.active_vars().iter().map(|&(v, _)| v).collect::<Vec<_>>();
            let group = plan_group::<F>(&active_set, &[(0, mi)]);

            // There should be exactly one extraction
            let extraction = &group.extractions[0];

            entries.push(SparseJetEntry {
                cumulative_weight: cumulative,
                input_coeffs: group.input_coeffs.clone(),
                output_coeff_index: extraction.output_coeff_index,
                extraction_prefactor: extraction.prefactor,
                sign: coeff.signum(),
            });
        }

        SparseSamplingDistribution {
            jet_order: entries
                .iter()
                .map(|e| e.output_coeff_index)
                .max()
                .unwrap_or(1),
            entries,
            total_weight: cumulative,
        }
    }
}

// ══════════════════════════════════════════════
//  SparseSamplingDistribution
// ══════════════════════════════════════════════

/// Pre-computed discrete distribution over sparse k-jets for STDE.
///
/// Built from a homogeneous-order [`DiffOp`] via [`DiffOp::sparse_distribution`].
/// The normalization constant `Z = Σ|C_α|` quantifies estimator quality —
/// larger Z means more samples needed for a given accuracy.
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
pub struct SparseSamplingDistribution<F> {
    jet_order: usize,
    entries: Vec<SparseJetEntry<F>>,
    total_weight: F,
}

/// A single entry in the sparse sampling distribution.
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
struct SparseJetEntry<F> {
    cumulative_weight: F,
    /// Slot assignments: `(var_index, slot, 1/slot!)`.
    input_coeffs: Vec<(usize, usize, F)>,
    /// Which output coefficient to read.
    output_coeff_index: usize,
    /// Multiply `coeffs[output_coeff_index]` by this to get the derivative.
    extraction_prefactor: F,
    /// `sign(C_α)` — the sign of the operator coefficient.
    sign: F,
}

/// Read-only view of a [`SparseJetEntry`] for use by [`stde_sparse`](crate::stde::stde_sparse).
pub struct SparseJetEntryRef<'a, F> {
    entry: &'a SparseJetEntry<F>,
}

impl<'a, F: Float> SparseJetEntryRef<'a, F> {
    /// Slot assignments: `(var_index, slot, 1/slot!)`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn input_coeffs(&self) -> &[(usize, usize, F)] {
        &self.entry.input_coeffs
    }

    /// Which output coefficient to read.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn output_coeff_index(&self) -> usize {
        self.entry.output_coeff_index
    }

    /// Extraction prefactor from the Faà di Bruno formula.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn extraction_prefactor(&self) -> F {
        self.entry.extraction_prefactor
    }

    /// Sign of the operator coefficient `C_α`.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn sign(&self) -> F {
        self.entry.sign
    }
}

impl<F: Float> SparseSamplingDistribution<F> {
    /// Inverse-CDF sampling: given `u ~ Uniform(0, 1)`, return entry index.
    ///
    /// Caller generates the uniform variate (no `rand` dependency).
    pub fn sample_index(&self, uniform_01: F) -> usize {
        let target = uniform_01 * self.total_weight;
        // Binary search on cumulative weights
        let mut lo = 0;
        let mut hi = self.entries.len();
        while lo < hi {
            let mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
            if self.entries[mid].cumulative_weight <= target {
                lo = mid + 1;
            } else {
                hi = mid;
            }
        }
        lo.min(self.entries.len() - 1)
    }

    /// The normalization constant `Z = Σ|C_α|`.
    pub fn normalization(&self) -> F {
        self.total_weight
    }

    /// Number of entries in the distribution.
    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
        self.entries.len()
    }

    /// Whether the distribution has no entries.
    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
        self.entries.is_empty()
    }

    /// Maximum jet order needed (the output coefficient index to read).
    pub fn jet_order(&self) -> usize {
        self.jet_order
    }

    /// Access entry by index (for use by [`stde_sparse`](crate::stde::stde_sparse)).
    pub fn entry(&self, index: usize) -> SparseJetEntryRef<'_, F> {
        SparseJetEntryRef {
            entry: &self.entries[index],
        }
    }
}