Scalable Concurrent Containers

A collection of high performance containers and utilities for concurrent and asynchronous programming.

Features

• Asynchronous and synchronous methods work in tandem.
• Every blocking method has asynchronous counterpart.
• Formally verified EBR implementation.
• Zero dependencies on other crates.
• Zero spin-locks and busy-waiting.
• Serde support: features = ["serde"].

Concurrent and Asynchronous Containers

• HashMap is a concurrent and asynchronous hash map.
• HashSet is a concurrent and asynchronous hash set.
• HashIndex is a read-optimized concurrent and asynchronous hash map.
• TreeIndex is a read-optimized concurrent and asynchronous B+ tree.

Utilities for Concurrent Programming

• EBR implements epoch-based reclamation.
• LinkedList is a type trait implementing a lock-free concurrent singly linked list.
• Queue is an EBR backed concurrent lock-free first-in-first-out container.
• Stack is an EBR backed concurrent lock-free last-in-first-out container.
• Bag is a concurrent lock-free unordered opaque container.

HashMap

HashMap is a concurrent hash map that is targeted at highly concurrent write-heavy workloads. It uses EBR for its hash table memory management in order to implement non-blocking resizing and fine-granular locking without static data sharding; it is not a lock-free data structure, and each access to a single key is serialized by a bucket-level mutex.

Locking behavior

Entry access

Read/write access to an entry requires a single shared/exclusive lock on the bucket where the size of a bucket is fixed regardless of the size of the container. There are no container-level locks, therefore, the larger the container gets, the lower the chance that a bucket-level lock is contended becomes.

Resize

Resizing of the container is totally non-blocking and lock-free; resizing does not block any other read/write access to the container or resizing attempts. Resizing is analogous to pushing a new bucket array into a lock-free stack. Each individual entry in the old bucket array will be incrementally relocated to the new bucket array on future access to the container, and the old bucket array gets dropped when it becomes empty.

Examples

A unique key can be inserted along with its corresponding value. The inserted entry can be updated, read, and removed synchronously or asynchronously.

use scc::HashMap;

let hashmap: HashMap<u64, u32> = HashMap::default();

assert!(hashmap.insert(1, 0).is_ok());
assert_eq!(hashmap.update(&1, |v| { *v = 2; *v }).unwrap(), 2);
assert_eq!(hashmap.read(&1, |_, v| *v).unwrap(), 2);
assert_eq!(hashmap.remove(&1).unwrap(), (1, 2));

let future_insert = hashmap.insert_async(2, 1);
let future_remove = hashmap.remove_async(&1);

upsert will insert a new entry if the key does not exist, otherwise update the value field.

use scc::HashMap;

let hashmap: HashMap<u64, u32> = HashMap::default();

hashmap.upsert(1, || 2, |_, v| *v = 2);
assert_eq!(hashmap.read(&1, |_, v| *v).unwrap(), 2);
hashmap.upsert(1, || 2, |_, v| *v = 3);
assert_eq!(hashmap.read(&1, |_, v| *v).unwrap(), 3);

let future_upsert = hashmap.upsert_async(2, || 1, |_, v| *v = 3);

There is no method to confine the lifetime of references derived from an Iterator to the Iterator, and it is illegal to let them live as long as the HashMap. Therefore Iterator is not implemented, instead, it provides a number of methods to iterate over entries: any, any_async, for_each, for_each_async, scan, scan_async, retain, and retain_async.

use scc::HashMap;

let hashmap: HashMap<u64, u32> = HashMap::default();

assert!(hashmap.insert(1, 0).is_ok());
assert!(hashmap.insert(2, 1).is_ok());

// `for_each` allows entry modification.
let mut acc = 0;
hashmap.for_each(|k, v_mut| { acc += *k; *v_mut = 2; });
assert_eq!(acc, 3);
assert_eq!(hashmap.read(&1, |_, v| *v).unwrap(), 2);
assert_eq!(hashmap.read(&2, |_, v| *v).unwrap(), 2);

// `any` returns `true` as soon as an entry satisfying the predicate is found.
assert!(hashmap.insert(3, 2).is_ok());
assert!(hashmap.any(|k, _| *k == 3));

// `retain` enables entry removal.
assert_eq!(hashmap.retain(|k, v| *k == 1 && *v == 0), (1, 2));

// Asynchronous iteration over entries using `scan_async` and `for_each_async`.
let future_scan = hashmap.scan_async(|k, v| println!("{k} {v}"));
let future_for_each = hashmap.for_each_async(|k, v_mut| { *v_mut = *k; });

HashSet

HashSet is a version of HashMap where the value type is ().

Examples

All the HashSet methods identical to that of HashMap except that they do not receive a value argument.

use scc::HashSet;

let hashset: HashSet<u64> = HashSet::default();

assert!(hashset.read(&1, |_| true).is_none());
assert!(hashset.insert(1).is_ok());
assert!(hashset.read(&1, |_| true).unwrap());

let future_insert = hashset.insert_async(2);
let future_remove = hashset.remove_async(&1);

HashIndex

HashIndex is a read-optimized version of HashMap. It applies EBR to its entry management as well, enabling it to perform read operations without blocking or being blocked.

Examples

Its read method is completely lock-free and does not modify any shared data.

use scc::HashIndex;

let hashindex: HashIndex<u64, u32> = HashIndex::default();

assert!(hashindex.insert(1, 0).is_ok());
assert_eq!(hashindex.read(&1, |_, v| *v).unwrap(), 0);

let future_insert = hashindex.insert_async(2, 1);
let future_remove = hashindex.remove_if_async(&1, |_| true);

An Iterator is implemented for HashIndex, because any derived references can survive as long as the associated ebr::Barrier lives.

use scc::ebr::Barrier;
use scc::HashIndex;

let hashindex: HashIndex<u64, u32> = HashIndex::default();

assert!(hashindex.insert(1, 0).is_ok());

let barrier = Barrier::new();

// An `ebr::Barrier` has to be supplied to `iter`.
let mut iter = hashindex.iter(&barrier);

// The derived reference can live as long as `barrier`.
let entry_ref = iter.next().unwrap();
assert_eq!(iter.next(), None);

drop(hashindex);

// The entry can be read after `hashindex` is dropped.
assert_eq!(entry_ref, (&1, &0));

TreeIndex

TreeIndex is a B+ tree variant optimized for read operations. The ebr module enables it to implement lock-free read and scan methods.

Locking behavior

Read access is always lock-free and non-blocking. Write access to an entry is also lock-free and non-blocking as long as no structural changes are required. However, when nodes are being split or merged by a write operation, other write operations on keys in the affected range are blocked.

Examples

A unique key can be inserted, read, and removed. Locks are acquired or awaited only when internal nodes are split or merged.

use scc::TreeIndex;

let treeindex: TreeIndex<u64, u32> = TreeIndex::new();

assert!(treeindex.insert(1, 2).is_ok());

// `read` is lock-free.
assert_eq!(treeindex.read(&1, |_, v| *v).unwrap(), 2);
assert!(treeindex.remove(&1));

let future_insert = treeindex.insert_async(2, 3);
let future_remove = treeindex.remove_if_async(&1, |v| *v == 2);

Entries can be scanned without acquiring any locks.

use scc::ebr::Barrier;
use scc::TreeIndex;

let treeindex: TreeIndex<u64, u32> = TreeIndex::new();

assert!(treeindex.insert(1, 10).is_ok());
assert!(treeindex.insert(2, 11).is_ok());
assert!(treeindex.insert(3, 13).is_ok());

let barrier = Barrier::new();

// `visitor` iterates over entries without acquiring a lock.
let mut visitor = treeindex.iter(&barrier);
assert_eq!(visitor.next().unwrap(), (&1, &10));
assert_eq!(visitor.next().unwrap(), (&2, &11));
assert_eq!(visitor.next().unwrap(), (&3, &13));
assert!(visitor.next().is_none());

A specific range of keys can be scanned.

use scc::ebr::Barrier;
use scc::TreeIndex;

let treeindex: TreeIndex<u64, u32> = TreeIndex::new();

for i in 0..10 {
    assert!(treeindex.insert(i, 10).is_ok());
}

let barrier = Barrier::new();

assert_eq!(treeindex.range(1..1, &barrier).count(), 0);
assert_eq!(treeindex.range(4..8, &barrier).count(), 4);
assert_eq!(treeindex.range(4..=8, &barrier).count(), 5);

Bag

Bag is a concurrent lock-free unordered container. Bag is completely opaque, disallowing access to contained instances until they are popped. Bag is especially efficient if the number of contained instances can be maintained under usize::BITS / 2.

Examples

use scc::Bag;

let bag: Bag<usize> = Bag::default();

bag.push(1);
assert!(!bag.is_empty());
assert_eq!(bag.pop(), Some(1));
assert!(bag.is_empty());

Queue

Queue is an EBR backed concurrent lock-free first-in-first-out container.

Examples

use scc::Queue;

let queue: Queue<usize> = Queue::default();

queue.push(1);
assert!(queue.push_if(2, |e| e.map_or(false, |x| *x == 1)).is_ok());
assert!(queue.push_if(3, |e| e.map_or(false, |x| *x == 1)).is_err());
assert_eq!(queue.pop().map(|e| **e), Some(1));
assert_eq!(queue.pop().map(|e| **e), Some(2));
assert!(queue.pop().is_none());

Stack

Stack is an EBR backed concurrent lock-free last-in-first-out container.

Examples

use scc::Stack;

let stack: Stack<usize> = Stack::default();

stack.push(1);
stack.push(2);
assert_eq!(stack.pop().map(|e| **e), Some(2));
assert_eq!(stack.pop().map(|e| **e), Some(1));
assert!(stack.pop().is_none());

EBR

The ebr module implements epoch-based reclamation and various types of auxiliary data structures to make use of it safely. Its epoch-based reclamation algorithm is similar to that implemented in crossbeam_epoch, however users may find it easier to use as the lifetime of an instance is safely managed. For instance, ebr::AtomicArc and ebr::Arc hold a strong reference to the underlying instance, and the instance is automatically passed to the garbage collector when the reference count drops to zero.

Examples

The ebr module can be used without an unsafe block.

use scc::ebr::{suspend, Arc, AtomicArc, Barrier, Ptr, Tag};

use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;

// `atomic_arc` holds a strong reference to `17`.
let atomic_arc: AtomicArc<usize> = AtomicArc::new(17);

// `barrier` prevents the garbage collector from dropping reachable instances.
let barrier: Barrier = Barrier::new();

// `ptr` cannot outlive `barrier`.
let mut ptr: Ptr<usize> = atomic_arc.load(Relaxed, &barrier);
assert_eq!(*ptr.as_ref().unwrap(), 17);

// `atomic_arc` can be tagged.
atomic_arc.update_tag_if(Tag::First, |t| t == Tag::None, Relaxed);

// `ptr` is not tagged, so CAS fails.
assert!(atomic_arc.compare_exchange(
    ptr,
    (Some(Arc::new(18)), Tag::First),
    Relaxed,
    Relaxed,
    &barrier).is_err());

// `ptr` can be tagged.
ptr.set_tag(Tag::First);

// The return value of CAS is a handle to the instance that `atomic_arc` previously owned.
let prev: Arc<usize> = atomic_arc.compare_exchange(
    ptr,
    (Some(Arc::new(18)), Tag::Second),
    Relaxed,
    Relaxed,
    &barrier).unwrap().0.unwrap();
assert_eq!(*prev, 17);

// `17` will be garbage-collected later.
drop(prev);

// `ebr::AtomicArc` can be converted into `ebr::Arc`.
let arc: Arc<usize> = atomic_arc.try_into_arc(Relaxed).unwrap();
assert_eq!(*arc, 18);

// `18` will be garbage-collected later.
drop(arc);

// `17` is still valid as `barrier` keeps the garbage collector from dropping it.
assert_eq!(*ptr.as_ref().unwrap(), 17);

// Execution of a closure can be deferred until all the current readers are gone.
barrier.defer_execute(|| println!("deferred"));
drop(barrier);

// The closure will be repeatedly invoked until it returns `true`.
let barrier = Barrier::new();
let mut data = 3;
barrier.defer_incremental_execute(move || {
    if data == 0 {
        return true;
    }
    data -= 1;
    false
});
drop(barrier);

// If the thread is expected to lie dormant for a while, call `suspend()` to allow other threads
// to reclaim its own retired instances.
suspend();

LinkedList

LinkedList is a type trait that implements lock-free concurrent singly linked list operations, backed by EBR. It additionally provides support for marking an entry of a linked list to denote a user-defined state.

Examples

use scc::ebr::{Arc, AtomicArc, Barrier};
use scc::LinkedList;

use std::sync::atomic::Ordering::Relaxed;

#[derive(Default)]
struct L(AtomicArc<L>, usize);
impl LinkedList for L {
    fn link_ref(&self) -> &AtomicArc<L> {
        &self.0
    }
}

let barrier = Barrier::new();

let head: L = L::default();
let tail: Arc<L> = Arc::new(L(AtomicArc::null(), 1));

// A new entry is pushed.
assert!(head.push_back(tail.clone(), false, Relaxed, &barrier).is_ok());
assert!(!head.is_marked(Relaxed));

// Users can mark a flag on an entry.
head.mark(Relaxed);
assert!(head.is_marked(Relaxed));

// `next_ptr` traverses the linked list.
let next_ptr = head.next_ptr(Relaxed, &barrier);
assert_eq!(next_ptr.as_ref().unwrap().1, 1);

// Once `tail` is deleted, it becomes invisible.
tail.delete_self(Relaxed);
assert!(head.next_ptr(Relaxed, &barrier).is_null());

Performance

HashMap and HashIndex

Comparison with DashMap.

• Results on Apple M1 (8 cores).
• Results on Intel Xeon (VM, 40 cores).
• The benchmark test is a fork of conc-map-bench.
• Interpret the results cautiously as benchmarks do not represent real world workloads.

EBR

• The average time taken to enter and exit a protected region: 2.3ns on Apple M1.

Changelog