# Python Class
## Define new class
To define a custom python class, a rust struct needs to be annotated with the
`#[pyclass]` attribute.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
#[pyclass]
struct MyClass {
num: i32,
debug: bool,
}
```
The above example generates implementations for `PyTypeInfo` and `PyTypeObject` for `MyClass`.
## Get Python objects from `pyclass`
You can use `pyclass`es like normal rust structs.
However, if instantiated normally, you can't treat `pyclass`es as Python objects.
To get a Python object which includes `pyclass`, we have to use some special methods.
### `PyRef`
`PyRef` is a special reference, which ensures that the referred struct is a part of
a Python object, and you are also holding the GIL.
You can get an instance of `PyRef` by `PyRef::new`, which does 3 things:
1. Allocate a Python object in the Python heap
2. Copies the rust struct into the Python object
3. Returns a reference of it
You can use `PyRef` just like `&T`, because it implements `Deref<Target=T>`.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# use pyo3::types::PyDict;
#[pyclass]
struct MyClass {
num: i32,
debug: bool,
}
let gil = Python::acquire_gil();
let py = gil.python();
let obj = PyRef::new(py, MyClass { num: 3, debug: true }).unwrap();
assert_eq!(obj.num, 3);
let dict = PyDict::new(py);
// You can treat a `PyRef` as a Python object
dict.set_item("obj", obj).unwrap();
```
### `PyRefMut`
`PyRefMut` is a mutable version of `PyRef`.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
#[pyclass]
struct MyClass {
num: i32,
debug: bool,
}
let gil = Python::acquire_gil();
let py = gil.python();
let mut obj = PyRefMut::new(py, MyClass { num: 3, debug: true }).unwrap();
obj.num = 5;
```
### `Py`
`Py` is a object wrapper which stores an object longer than the GIL lifetime.
You can use it to avoid lifetime problems.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
#[pyclass]
struct MyClass {
num: i32,
}
fn return_myclass() -> Py<MyClass> {
let gil = Python::acquire_gil();
let py = gil.python();
Py::new(py, MyClass { num: 1 }).unwrap()
}
let gil = Python::acquire_gil();
let obj = return_myclass();
assert_eq!(obj.as_ref(gil.python()).num, 1);
```
## Customizing the class
The `#[pyclass]` macro accepts following parameters:
* `name=XXX` - Set the class name shown in python code. By default struct name is used as a class name.
* `freelist=XXX` - `freelist` parameter add support of free allocation list to custom class.
The performance improvement applies to types that are often created and deleted in a row,
so that they can benefit from a freelist. `XXX` is a number of items for free list.
* `gc` - Classes with the `gc` parameter
participate in python garbage collector. If a custom class contains references to other
python object that can be collected, the `PyGCProtocol` trait has to be implemented.
* `weakref` - adds support for python weak references
* `extends=BaseType` - use a custom base class. The base BaseType must implement `PyTypeInfo`.
* `subclass` - Allows Python classes to inherit from this class
* `dict` - adds `__dict__` support, the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance variables.
## Constructor
By default it is not possible to create an instance of a custom class from python code.
To declare a constructor, you need to define a class method and annotate it with `#[new]`
attribute. Only the python `__new__` method can be specified, `__init__` is not available.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# use pyo3::PyRawObject;
#[pyclass]
struct MyClass {
num: i32,
}
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
#[new]
fn new(obj: &PyRawObject, num: i32) {
obj.init({
MyClass {
num,
}
});
}
}
```
Rules for the `new` method:
* If no method marked with `#[new]` is declared, object instances can only be created
from Rust, but not from Python.
* The first parameter is the raw object and the custom `new` method must initialize the object
with an instance of the struct using `init` method. The type of the object may be the type object of
a derived class declared in Python.
* The first parameter implicitly has type `&PyRawObject`.
* For details on `parameter-list`, see the documentation of `Method arguments` section.
* The return type must be `PyResult<T>` for some `T` that implements `IntoPyObject`. Usually, `T` will be `MyType`.
## Inheritance
By default `PyObject` is used as default base class. To override default base class
`base` parameter for `class` needs to be used. Value is full path to base class.
`new` method accepts `PyRawObject` object. `obj` instance must be initialized
with value of custom class struct. Subclass must call parent's `new` method.
```rust,ignore
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# use pyo3::PyRawObject;
#[pyclass]
struct BaseClass {
val1: usize,
}
#[pymethods]
impl BaseClass {
#[new]
fn new(obj: &PyRawObject) {
obj.init(BaseClass{ val1: 10 });
}
pub fn method(&self) -> PyResult<()> {
Ok(())
}
}
#[pyclass(extends=BaseClass)]
struct SubClass {
val2: usize,
}
#[pymethods]
impl SubClass {
#[new]
fn new(obj: &PyRawObject) {
obj.init(SubClass{ val2: 10 });
BaseClass::new(obj);
}
fn method2(&self) -> PyResult<()> {
self.get_base().method()
}
}
```
`ObjectProtocol` trait provides `get_base()` method. It returns reference to instance of
base class.
## Object properties
Descriptor methods can be defined in
`#[pymethods]` `impl` block only and has to be annotated with `#[getter]` or `[setter]`
attributes. i.e.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# }
#
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
#[getter]
fn num(&self) -> PyResult<i32> {
Ok(self.num)
}
}
```
Getter or setter function's name is used as property name by default. There are several
ways how to override name.
If function name starts with `get_` or `set_` for getter or setter respectively.
Descriptor name becomes function name with prefix removed. This is useful in case of
rust's special keywords like `type`.
```rust,ignore
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# }
#
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
#[getter]
fn get_num(&self) -> PyResult<i32> {
Ok(self.num)
}
#[setter]
fn set_num(&mut self, value: i32) -> PyResult<()> {
self.num = value;
Ok(())
}
}
```
In this case property `num` is defined. And it is available from python code as `self.num`.
Also both `#[getter]` and `#[setter]` attributes accepts one parameter.
If this parameter is specified, it is used as a property name. i.e.
```rust,ignore
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# }
#
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
#[getter(number)]
fn num(&self) -> PyResult<i32> {
Ok(self.num)
}
#[setter(number)]
fn set_num(&mut self, value: i32) -> PyResult<()> {
self.num = value;
Ok(())
}
}
```
In this case the property `number` is defined and is available from python code as `self.number`.
For simple cases you can also define getters and setters in your Rust struct field definition, for example:
```rust,ignore
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
#[pyclass]
struct MyClass {
#[pyo3(get, set)]
num: i32
}
```
Then it is available from Python code as `self.num`.
## Instance methods
To define a python compatible method, `impl` block for struct has to be annotated with the
`#[pymethods]` attribute. PyO3 generates python compatible wrappers for all functions in this
block with some variations, like descriptors, class method static methods, etc.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# }
#
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
fn method1(&self) -> PyResult<i32> {
Ok(10)
}
fn set_method(&mut self, value: i32) -> PyResult<()> {
self.num = value;
Ok(())
}
}
```
Calls to this methods protected by `GIL`, `&self` or `&mut self` can be used.
The return type must be `PyResult<T>` for some `T` that implements `IntoPyObject`.
`Python` parameter can be specified as part of method signature, in this case `py` argument
get injected by method wrapper. i.e
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# debug: bool,
# }
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
fn method2(&self, py: Python) -> PyResult<i32> {
Ok(10)
}
}
```
From python perspective `method2`, in above example, does not accept any arguments.
## Class methods
To specify a class method for a custom class, the method needs to be annotated
with the `#[classmethod]` attribute.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# use pyo3::types::PyType;
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# debug: bool,
# }
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
#[classmethod]
fn cls_method(cls: &PyType) -> PyResult<i32> {
Ok(10)
}
}
```
Declares a class method callable from Python.
* The first parameter is the type object of the class on which the method is called.
This may be the type object of a derived class.
* The first parameter implicitly has type `&PyType`.
* For details on `parameter-list`, see the documentation of `Method arguments` section.
* The return type must be `PyResult<T>` for some `T` that implements `IntoPyObject`.
## Static methods
To specify a static method for a custom class, method needs to be annotated with
`#[staticmethod]` attribute. The return type must be `PyResult<T>` for some `T` that implements
`IntoPyObject`.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# debug: bool,
# }
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
#[staticmethod]
fn static_method(param1: i32, param2: &str) -> PyResult<i32> {
Ok(10)
}
}
```
## Callable object
To specify a custom `__call__` method for a custom class, call methods need to be annotated with
the `#[call]` attribute. Arguments of the method are specified same as for instance method.
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
use pyo3::types::PyTuple;
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# debug: bool,
# }
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
#[call]
#[args(args="*")]
fn __call__(&self, args: &PyTuple) -> PyResult<i32> {
println!("MyClass has been called");
Ok(self.num)
}
}
```
## Method arguments
By default PyO3 uses function signatures to determine which arguments are required. Then it scans
incoming `args` parameter and then incoming `kwargs` parameter. If it can not find all required
parameters, it raises a `TypeError` exception. It is possible to override the default behavior
with `#[args(...)]` attribute. `args` attribute accepts a comma separated list of parameters in
form of `attr_name="default value"`. Each parameter has to match the method parameter by name.
Each parameter could be one of following type:
* "\*": var arguments separator, each parameter defined after "*" is keyword only parameters.
corresponds to python's `def meth(*, arg1.., arg2=..)`
* args="\*": "args" is var args, corresponds to python's `def meth(*args)`. Type of `args`
parameter has to be `&PyTuple`.
* kwargs="\*\*": "kwargs" is keyword arguments, corresponds to python's `def meth(**kwargs)`.
Type of `kwargs` parameter has to be `Option<&PyDict>`.
* arg="Value": arguments with default value. corresponds to python's `def meth(arg=Value)`.
if `arg` argument is defined after var arguments it is treated as keyword argument.
Note that `Value` has to be valid rust code, PyO3 just inserts it into generated
code unmodified.
Example:
```rust
# extern crate pyo3;
# use pyo3::prelude::*;
use pyo3::types::{PyDict, PyTuple};
#
# #[pyclass]
# struct MyClass {
# num: i32,
# debug: bool,
# }
#
#[pymethods]
impl MyClass {
#[args(arg1=true, args="*", arg2=10, kwargs="**")]
fn method(&self, arg1: bool, args: &PyTuple, arg2: i32, kwargs: Option<&PyDict>) -> PyResult<i32> {
Ok(1)
}
}
```
## Class customizations
Python's object model defines several protocols for different object behavior, like sequence,
mapping or number protocols. PyO3 defines separate traits for each of them. To provide specific
python object behavior you need to implement the specific trait for your struct. Important note,
each protocol implementation block has to be annotated with `#[pyproto]` attribute.
### Basic object customization
[`PyObjectProtocol`](https://docs.rs/pyo3/0.6.0-alpha.4/class/basic/trait.PyObjectProtocol.html) trait provide several basic customizations.
#### Attribute access
To customize object attribute access define following methods:
* `fn __getattr__(&self, name: FromPyObject) -> PyResult<impl IntoPyObject>`
* `fn __setattr__(&mut self, name: FromPyObject, value: FromPyObject) -> PyResult<()>`
* `fn __delattr__(&mut self, name: FromPyObject) -> PyResult<()>`
Each methods corresponds to python's `self.attr`, `self.attr = value` and `del self.attr` code.
#### String Conversions
* `fn __repr__(&self) -> PyResult<impl ToPyObject<ObjectType=PyString>>`
* `fn __str__(&self) -> PyResult<impl ToPyObject<ObjectType=PyString>>`
Possible return types for `__str__` and `__repr__` are `PyResult<String>` or `PyResult<PyString>`.
In Python 2.7, Unicode strings returned by `__str__` and `__repr__` will be converted to byte strings
by the Python runtime, which results in an exception if the string contains non-ASCII characters.
* `fn __bytes__(&self) -> PyResult<PyBytes>`
On Python 3.x, provides the conversion to `bytes`.
On Python 2.7, `__bytes__` is allowed but has no effect.
* `fn __unicode__(&self) -> PyResult<PyUnicode>`
On Python 2.7, provides the conversion to `unicode`.
On Python 3.x, `__unicode__` is allowed but has no effect.
* `fn __format__(&self, format_spec: &str) -> PyResult<impl ToPyObject<ObjectType=PyString>>`
Special method that is used by the `format()` builtin and the `str.format()` method.
Possible return types are `PyResult<String>` or `PyResult<PyString>`.
#### Comparison operators
* `fn __richcmp__(&self, other: impl FromPyObject, op: CompareOp) -> PyResult<impl ToPyObject>`
Overloads Python comparison operations (`==`, `!=`, `<`, `<=`, `>`, and `>=`).
The `op` argument indicates the comparison operation being performed.
The return type will normally be `PyResult<bool>`, but any Python object can be returned.
If `other` is not of the type specified in the signature, the generated code will
automatically `return NotImplemented`.
* `fn __hash__(&self) -> PyResult<impl PrimInt>`
Objects that compare equal must have the same hash value.
The return type must be `PyResult<T>` where `T` is one of Rust's primitive integer types.
#### Other methods
* `fn __bool__(&self) -> PyResult<bool>`
Determines the "truthiness" of the object.
This method works for both python 3 and python 2,
even on Python 2.7 where the Python spelling was `__nonzero__`.
### Garbage Collector Integration
If your type owns references to other python objects, you will need to
integrate with Python's garbage collector so that the GC is aware of
those references.
To do this, implement [`PyGCProtocol`](https://docs.rs/pyo3/0.6.0-alpha.4/class/gc/trait.PyGCProtocol.html) trait for your struct.
It includes two methods `__traverse__` and `__clear__`.
These correspond to the slots `tp_traverse` and `tp_clear` in the Python C API.
`__traverse__` must call `visit.call()` for each reference to another python object.
`__clear__` must clear out any mutable references to other python objects
(thus breaking reference cycles). Immutable references do not have to be cleared,
as every cycle must contain at least one mutable reference.
Example:
```rust
extern crate pyo3;
use pyo3::prelude::*;
use pyo3::PyTraverseError;
use pyo3::gc::{PyGCProtocol, PyVisit};
#[pyclass]
struct ClassWithGCSupport {
obj: Option<PyObject>,
}
#[pyproto]
impl PyGCProtocol for ClassWithGCSupport {
fn __traverse__(&self, visit: PyVisit) -> Result<(), PyTraverseError> {
if let Some(ref obj) = self.obj {
visit.call(obj)?
}
Ok(())
}
fn __clear__(&mut self) {
if let Some(obj) = self.obj.take() {
// Release reference, this decrements ref counter.
let gil = GILGuard::acquire();
let py = gil.python();
py.release(obj);
}
}
}
```
Special protocol trait implementations have to be annotated with the `#[pyproto]` attribute.
It is also possible to enable GC for custom class using `gc` parameter for `class` annotation.
i.e. `#[pyclass(gc)]`. In that case instances of custom class participate in python garbage
collector, and it is possible to track them with `gc` module methods.
### Iterator Types
Iterators can be defined using the
[`PyIterProtocol`](https://docs.rs/pyo3/0.6.0-alpha.4/class/iter/trait.PyIterProtocol.html) trait.
It includes two methods `__iter__` and `__next__`:
* `fn __iter__(slf: PyRefMut<Self>) -> PyResult<impl IntoPyObject>`
* `fn __next__(slf: PyRefMut<Self>) -> PyResult<Option<impl IntoPyObject>>`
Returning `Ok(None)` from `__next__` indicates that that there are no further items.
Example:
```rust
extern crate pyo3;
use pyo3::prelude::*;
use pyo3::PyIterProtocol;
#[pyclass]
struct MyIterator {
iter: Box<Iterator<Item = PyObject> + Send>,
}
#[pyproto]
impl PyIterProtocol for MyIterator {
fn __iter__(slf: PyRefMut<Self>) -> PyResult<Py<MyIterator>> {
Ok(slf.into())
}
fn __next__(mut slf: PyRefMut<Self>) -> PyResult<Option<PyObject>> {
Ok(slf.iter.next())
}
}
```
## Manually implementing pyclass
TODO: Which traits to implement (basically `PyTypeCreate: PyObjectAlloc + PyTypeInfo + PyMethodsProtocol + Sized`) and what they mean.
## How methods are implemented
Users should be able to define a `#[pyclass]` with or without `#[pymethods]`, while PyO3 needs a
trait with a function that returns all methods. Since it's impossible to make the code generation in
pyclass dependent on whether there is an impl block, we'd need to implement the trait on
`#[pyclass]` and override the implementation in `#[pymethods]`, which is to the best of my knowledge
only possible with the specialization feature, which can't be used on stable.
To escape this we use [inventory](https://github.com/dtolnay/inventory), which allows us to collect `impl`s from arbitrary source code by exploiting some binary trick. See [inventory: how it works](https://github.com/dtolnay/inventory#how-it-works) and `pyo3_derive_backend::py_class::impl_inventory` for more details.