mlas-sys 0.1.0-dev.5

// Copyright (c) Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
// Licensed under the MIT License.

/*-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SafeInt.hpp
Version 3.0.29p

This header implements an integer handling class designed to catch
unsafe integer operations

This header compiles properly at Wall on Visual Studio, -Wall on gcc, and -Weverything on clang.
Tested most recently on clang 3.8.0, gcc 7.3.1, and both Visual Studio 2015 and 2017.

Please read helpfile.md before using the class.
---------------------------------------------------------------*/
#ifndef SAFEINT_HPP
#define SAFEINT_HPP

// It is a bit tricky to sort out what compiler we are actually using,
// do this once here, and avoid cluttering the code
#define SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO 0
#define SAFEINT_COMPILER_CLANG         1
#define SAFEINT_COMPILER_GCC           2
#define SAFEINT_COMPILER_UNKNOWN      -1

// Clang will sometimes pretend to be Visual Studio
// and does pretend to be gcc. Check it first, as nothing else pretends to be clang
#if defined __clang__
#define SAFEINT_COMPILER SAFEINT_COMPILER_CLANG
#elif defined __GNUC__
#define SAFEINT_COMPILER SAFEINT_COMPILER_GCC
#elif defined _MSC_VER
#define SAFEINT_COMPILER SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO
#else
#define SAFEINT_COMPILER SAFEINT_COMPILER_UNKNOWN
#endif

#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_98 0
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_11 1
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_14 2
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_17 3
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_20 4
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_23 5

// Determine C++ support level
#if SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_CLANG || SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_GCC

#if __cplusplus < 201103L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_98
#elif __cplusplus < 201402L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_11
#elif __cplusplus < 201703L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_14
#elif __cplusplus < 202002L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_17
#elif __cplusplus < 202100L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_20
#else
// gcc reports 202100L for C++23 (draft); clang reports 202302L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_23
#endif

#elif SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO

// This needs additional testing to get more versions of _MSCVER
#if _MSC_VER < 1900 // Prior to VS 2015, need more testing to determine support
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_98

#elif _MSC_VER < 1910 // VS 2015
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_11

#elif _MSC_VER < 1920 // VS 2017
// Note - there is a __cpp_constexpr test now, but everything prior to VS 2017 reports incorrect values
// and this version always supports at least the SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_14 approach
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_14

#else // VS 2019 or later - use _MSVC_LANG which correctly reflects /std: flag
#if defined(_MSVC_LANG) && _MSVC_LANG > 202002L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_23
#elif defined(_MSVC_LANG) && _MSVC_LANG >= 202002L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_20
#elif defined(_MSVC_LANG) && _MSVC_LANG >= 201703L
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_17
#else
// Default MSVC mode (no /std: flag, or /std:c++14) - at least C++14
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_14
#endif

#endif

#else
// Unknown compiler, assume C++ 98
#define SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_98
#endif // Determine C++ support level

#if !defined SAFEINT_USE_CPLUSCPLUS_98
#if (SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_CLANG || SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_GCC) && SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD < SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_11
#error Must compile with --std=c++11, preferably --std=c++14 to use constexpr improvements
#endif
#endif

#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_NONE 0
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP11 1
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP14 2

// Let's try to use the new standard to determine feature compliance
// If the user has an unknown compiler, or just for testing, allow forcing this setting
#if !defined SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT

#if defined __cpp_constexpr
// If it is gcc or clang, at least recent versions, then we have -std=c++11 or -std=c++14
// This won't be set otherwise, but the headers won't compile, either
#if __cpp_constexpr >= 201304L
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP14 // Clang, gcc, Visual Studio 2017 or later
#elif __cpp_constexpr >= 200704L
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP11 // Clang, gcc with -std=c++11, Visual Studio 2015
#else
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_NONE
#endif

#else // !defined __cpp_constexpr
// Visual Studio is somehow not playing nice. shows __cpp_constexpr visually as defined, but won't compile
#if SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO
#if SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD == SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_14
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP14
#elif SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD == SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_11
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP11
#else
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_NONE
#endif
#else
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_NONE
#endif

#endif // defined __cpp_constexpr

#endif // !defined SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT

#if SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT == SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_NONE
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14
#elif SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT == SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP11
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 constexpr
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14
#elif SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD >= SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_14
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 constexpr
#define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 constexpr
#else
#error "Unexpected value of SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD"
#endif

// Backwards-compatibility aliases for unprefixed macros.  These names polluted
// the global preprocessor namespace and are now spelled SAFEINT_<NAME>.  The
// old names remain as aliases for callers that reference them directly (e.g.
// in their own #if conditions).  Define SAFEINT_NO_LEGACY_MACROS before
// including this header to opt out of the aliases and get a clean namespace.
#if !defined SAFEINT_NO_LEGACY_MACROS

#define VISUAL_STUDIO_COMPILER SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO
#define CLANG_COMPILER         SAFEINT_COMPILER_CLANG
#define GCC_COMPILER           SAFEINT_COMPILER_GCC
#define UNKNOWN_COMPILER       SAFEINT_COMPILER_UNKNOWN

#define CPLUSPLUS_98  SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_98
#define CPLUSPLUS_11  SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_11
#define CPLUSPLUS_14  SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_14
#define CPLUSPLUS_17  SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_17
#define CPLUSPLUS_STD SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD

#define CONSTEXPR_NONE    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_NONE
#define CONSTEXPR_CPP11   SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP11
#define CONSTEXPR_CPP14   SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_CPP14
#define CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR_SUPPORT

#endif // !defined SAFEINT_NO_LEGACY_MACROS

// Determine whether exceptions are enabled by the compiler
// Also, allow the user to force this, in case the compiler
// doesn't support the __cpp_exceptions feature
#if !defined SAFE_INT_HAS_EXCEPTIONS
    #if __cpp_exceptions >= 199711L
        #define SAFE_INT_HAS_EXCEPTIONS 1
    #else
        #define SAFE_INT_HAS_EXCEPTIONS 0
    #endif
#endif

/* Microsoft's compiler continues to misrepresent the language version
// and to make everything more confusing, there's  _Check_return_
// in MSVC, and __attribute__((warn_unused_result)) in clang/gcc

We can check for these with:

#if defined(__GNUC__) && (__GNUC__ >= 4)
#define SAFEINT_CHECK_RESULT __attribute__ ((warn_unused_result))
#elif defined(_MSC_VER) && (_MSC_VER >= 1700)
#define SAFEINT_CHECK_RESULT _Check_return_
#else
#define SAFEINT_CHECK_RESULT
#endif

*/

// Begin with the standard way of testing for attributes
// Can use downlevel approaches if there's demand for it
#if defined __has_cpp_attribute && __has_cpp_attribute(nodiscard) >= 201603L && SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD >= SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_17
#define SAFE_INT_HAS_NODISCARD 1
#else
#define SAFE_INT_HAS_NODISCARD 0
#endif

#if SAFE_INT_HAS_NODISCARD
#define SAFE_INT_NODISCARD [[nodiscard]]
#else
#define SAFE_INT_NODISCARD
#endif

// Enable compiling with /Wall under VC
#if SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO
// Off by default - unreferenced inline function has been removed
// Note - this intentionally leaks from the header, doesn't quench the warnings otherwise
// Also disable Spectre mitigation warning
#pragma warning( disable: 4514 5045 )

#pragma warning( push )
// Disable warnings coming from headers
#pragma warning( disable:4987 4820 4987 4820 )
#endif

// More defines to accomodate compiler differences
#if SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_GCC || SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_CLANG
#define SAFEINT_NORETURN __attribute__((noreturn))
#define SAFEINT_STDCALL
#define SAFEINT_VISIBLE __attribute__ ((__visibility__("default")))
#define SAFEINT_WEAK __attribute__ ((weak))
#else
#define SAFEINT_NORETURN __declspec(noreturn)
#define SAFEINT_STDCALL __stdcall
#define SAFEINT_VISIBLE
#define SAFEINT_WEAK
#endif

// On the Microsoft compiler, violating a throw() annotation is a silent error.
// Other compilers might turn these into exceptions, and some users may want to not have throw() enabled.
// In addition, some error handlers may not throw C++ exceptions, which makes everything no throw.
// noexcept requires C++11
#if defined SAFEINT_REMOVE_NOTHROW || SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_STD == SAFEINT_CPLUSPLUS_98
#define SAFEINT_NOTHROW
#else
#define SAFEINT_NOTHROW noexcept
#endif

#include <cstdint>
#include <limits>
#include <type_traits> // This is now required
// Need this for ptrdiff_t on some compilers
#include <cstddef>
#include <cmath> // Needed for floating point implementation

// Figure out if we should use intrinsics
// If the user has already decided, let that override
// Note - intrinsics and constexpr are mutually exclusive
// If it is important to get constexpr for multiplication, then define SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS 0
// However, intrinsics will result in much smaller code, and should have better perf

// We might have 128-bit int support, check for that, as it should work best
#if !defined SAFEINT_HAS_INT128

#if defined __SIZEOF_INT128__ && __SIZEOF_INT128__ == 16
#define SAFEINT_HAS_INT128 1
__extension__ typedef          __int128 safeint_int128_t;
__extension__ typedef unsigned __int128 safeint_uint128_t;
#else
#define SAFEINT_HAS_INT128 0
#endif

#endif

#if SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
#define SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS 0
#endif

#if !defined SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS
// If it is the Visual Studio compiler, then it has to be 64-bit, and not ARM64EC
#if SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO
    #if defined _M_AMD64 && !defined _M_ARM64EC
        #include <intrin.h>
        #define SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS 1
    #else
        #define SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS 0
    #endif
#else
    // Else for gcc and clang, we can use builtin functions
    #if SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_CLANG || SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_GCC
        #define SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS 1
    #else
        #define SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS 0
    #endif
#endif

#endif

// The gcc and clang builtin functions are constexpr, but not the Microsoft intrinsics
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS && SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO
    #define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY
#else
    #define SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14
#endif

// If you would like to use your own custom assert
// Define SAFEINT_ASSERT
#if !defined SAFEINT_ASSERT
#include <assert.h>
#define SAFEINT_ASSERT(x) assert(x)
#endif

#if SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO
#pragma warning( pop )
#endif

// Let's test some assumptions
// We're assuming two's complement negative numbers
static_assert( -1 == static_cast<int>(0xffffffff), "Two's complement signed numbers are required" );

// For current documentation, see helpfile.md

/*  Revision history:
*
*  Oct 12, 2003 - Created
*  Author - David LeBlanc - dleblanc@microsoft.com (no longer valid)
*  Current email is dcl@dleblanc.net
*
*  Oct 27, 2003 - fixed numerous items pointed out by michmarc and bdawson
*  Dec 28, 2003 - 1.0
*                 added support for mixed-type operations
*                 thanks to vikramh
*                 also fixed broken std::int64_t multiplication section
*                 added extended support for mixed-type operations where possible
*  Jan 28, 2004 - 1.0.1
*                 changed WCHAR to wchar_t
*                 fixed a construct in two mixed-type assignment overloads that was
*                 not compiling on some compilers
*                 Also changed name of private method to comply with standards on
*                 reserved names
*                 Thanks to Niels Dekker for the input
*  Feb 12, 2004 - 1.0.2
*                 Minor changes to remove dependency on Windows headers
*                 Consistently used std::int16_t, std::int32_t and std::int64_t to ensure
*                 portability
*  May 10, 2004 - 1.0.3
*                 Corrected bug in one case of GreaterThan
*  July 22, 2004 - 1.0.4
*                 Tightened logic in addition check (saving 2 instructions)
*                 Pulled error handler out into function to enable user-defined replacement
*                 Made internal type of SafeIntException an enum (as per Niels' suggestion)
*                 Added casts for base integer types (as per Scott Meyers' suggestion)
*                 Updated usage information - see important new perf notes.
*                 Cleaned up several const issues (more thanks to Niels)
*
*  Oct 1, 2004 - 1.0.5
*                 Added support for SEH exceptions instead of C++ exceptions - Win32 only
*                 Made handlers for DIV0 and overflows individually overridable
*                 Commented out the destructor - major perf gains here
*                 Added cast operator for type long, since long != std::int32_t
*                  Corrected a couple of missing const modifiers
*                 Fixed broken >= and <= operators for type U op SafeInt< T, E >
*  Nov 5, 2004 - 1.0.6
*                 Implemented new logic in binary operators to resolve issues with
*                 implicit casts
*                 Fixed casting operator because char != signed char
*                 Defined std::int32_t as int instead of long
*                 Removed unsafe SafeInt::Value method
*                 Re-implemented casting operator as a result of removing Value method
*  Dec 1, 2004 - 1.0.7
*                 Implemented specialized operators for pointer arithmetic
*                 Created overloads for cases of U op= SafeInt. What you do with U
*                 after that may be dangerous.
*                 Fixed bug in corner case of MixedSizeModulus
*                 Fixed bug in MixedSizeMultiply and MixedSizeDivision with input of 0
*                 Added throw() decorations
*
*  Apr 12, 2005 - 2.0
*                 Extensive revisions to leverage template specialization.
*  April, 2007    Extensive revisions for version 3.0
*  Nov 22, 2009   Forked from MS internal code
*                 Changes needed to support gcc compiler - many thanks to Niels Dekker
*                 for determining not just the issues, but also suggesting fixes.
*                 Also updating some of the header internals to be the same as the upcoming Visual Studio version.
*
*  Jan 16, 2010   64-bit gcc has long == std::int64_t, which means that many of the existing 64-bit
*                 templates are over-specialized. This forces a redefinition of all the 64-bit
*                 multiplication routines to use pointers instead of references for return
*                 values. Also, let's use some intrinsics for x64 Microsoft compiler to
*                 reduce code size, and hopefully improve efficiency.
*
*  June 21, 2014  Better support for clang, higher warning levels supported for all 3 primary supported
                  compilers (Visual Studio, clang, gcc).
                  Also started to converge the code base such that the public CodePlex version will
                  be a drop-in replacement for the Visual Studio version.

* Feb 12, 2018    Fixed floating point bug
*                 Fix to allow initialization by an enum
*                 Add support for static_assert, make it default to fix compiler warnings from C_ASSERT on gcc, clang
*                 Changed throw() to noexcept

* March, 2018     Introduced support for constexpr, both the C++11 and C++14 flavors work. The C++14 standard
                  allows for much more thorough usage, and should be preferred.

* August, 2022    Added support for nodiscard


*  Note about code style - throughout this class, casts will be written using C-style (T),
*  not C++ style static_cast< T >. This is because the class is nearly always dealing with integer
*  types, and in this case static_cast and a C cast are equivalent. Given the large number of casts,
*  the code is a little more readable this way. In the event a cast is needed where static_cast couldn't
*  be substituted, we'll use the new templatized cast to make it explicit what the operation is doing.
*
************************************************************************************************************
*/

enum SafeIntError
{
    SafeIntNoError = 0,
    SafeIntArithmeticOverflow,
    SafeIntDivideByZero
};

/*
    Exception options -
    1) You have your own exception handler
    2) You want to use the built-in SafeIntException class
        2a) TBD, support for std::exception of some sort would be nice to have
    3) You don't want C++ exceptions
        3a) Use abort()
        3b) Use failfast
    4) Use Win32 API structured exceptions (legacy, not recommened)
*/

// If the user has already defined an exception handler, we don't need built-in exception approaches
#if defined SafeIntDefaultExceptionHandler

// If the user has defined a custom exception handler, assume it is a C++
// exception handler, unless user tell us it isn't, or we already know
// we can't have exceptions

// Note - SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_HANDLER_CPP == 1
// implies that the handler can throw, and
// adjusts SAFE_INT_CPP_THROW to match
// If that isn't what you want, define it
// and SafeInt will use what you prefer.
#if !defined SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_HANDLER_CPP

#if SAFE_INT_HAS_EXCEPTIONS
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_HANDLER_CPP 1
#else
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_HANDLER_CPP 0
#endif

#endif

#else // Use one of the built-in exception approaches

// If you'd like to prevent platform-specific code,
// define SAFE_INT_USE_STDLIB

// Now we need to define an exception handler
// Internally defined exception handlers might assert
#if defined SAFEINT_ASSERT_ON_EXCEPTION
inline void SafeIntExceptionAssert() SAFEINT_NOTHROW { SAFEINT_ASSERT(false); }
#else
inline void SafeIntExceptionAssert() SAFEINT_NOTHROW {}
#endif

#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_WIN32 0
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_ABORT 1
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_CPP   2

#if defined SAFEINT_RAISE_EXCEPTION && !defined SAFE_INT_USE_STDLIB // Win32 structured exceptions
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_METHOD SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_WIN32
#elif defined SAFEINT_FAILFAST      // Call __failfast or abort, depending on platform
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_METHOD SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_ABORT
#else
    #if SAFE_INT_HAS_EXCEPTIONS     // Use the built-in C++ exceptions
    #define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_METHOD SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_CPP
    #else                           // Must use same as SAFEINT_FAILFAST
    #define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_METHOD SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_ABORT
    #endif
#endif

#if SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_METHOD == SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_CPP

class SAFEINT_VISIBLE SafeIntException
{
public:
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeIntException(SafeIntError code = SafeIntNoError) SAFEINT_NOTHROW : m_code(code)
    {
    }
    SafeIntError m_code;
};

// Note - removed weak annotation on class due to gcc complaints
// This was the only place in the file that used it, need to better understand
// whether it was put there correctly in the first place
namespace safeint_exception_handlers
{
    template < typename E > class SafeIntExceptionHandler;

    // Some users may have applications that do not use C++ exceptions
    // and cannot compile the following class. If that is the case,
    // either SafeInt_InvalidParameter must be defined as the default,
    // or a custom, user-supplied exception handler must be provided.

    template <> class SafeIntExceptionHandler < SafeIntException >
    {
    public:

        static SAFEINT_NORETURN void SAFEINT_STDCALL SafeIntOnOverflow()
        {
            SafeIntExceptionAssert();
            throw SafeIntException(SafeIntArithmeticOverflow);
        }

        static SAFEINT_NORETURN void SAFEINT_STDCALL SafeIntOnDivZero()
        {
            SafeIntExceptionAssert();
            throw SafeIntException(SafeIntDivideByZero);
        }
    };

    typedef SafeIntExceptionHandler < SafeIntException > CPlusPlusExceptionHandler;
}

#define SafeIntDefaultExceptionHandler safeint_exception_handlers::CPlusPlusExceptionHandler
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_HANDLER_CPP 1

#endif // SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_CPP

#if SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_METHOD == SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_WIN32

// Must have Windows to use this
#if !defined _WINDOWS_
#error Include windows.h in order to use Win32 exceptions
#endif
namespace safeint_exception_handlers
{
    class SafeIntWin32ExceptionHandler
    {
    public:
        static SAFEINT_NORETURN void SAFEINT_STDCALL SafeIntOnOverflow() SAFEINT_NOTHROW
        {
            SafeIntExceptionAssert();
            RaiseException(static_cast<DWORD>(EXCEPTION_INT_OVERFLOW), EXCEPTION_NONCONTINUABLE, 0, 0);
        }

        static SAFEINT_NORETURN void SAFEINT_STDCALL SafeIntOnDivZero() SAFEINT_NOTHROW
        {
            SafeIntExceptionAssert();
            RaiseException(static_cast<DWORD>(EXCEPTION_INT_DIVIDE_BY_ZERO), EXCEPTION_NONCONTINUABLE, 0, 0);
        }
    };

}

typedef safeint_exception_handlers::SafeIntWin32ExceptionHandler Win32ExceptionHandler;
#define SafeIntDefaultExceptionHandler Win32ExceptionHandler
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_HANDLER_CPP 0
#endif // SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_WIN32

#if SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_METHOD == SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_ABORT
// This has two possible implementations - one is failfast, the other is abort
#if defined _CRT_SECURE_INVALID_PARAMETER && !defined SAFE_INT_USE_STDLIB
    #define SAFE_INT_ABORT(msg) _CRT_SECURE_INVALID_PARAMETER(msg)
#else
    // Calling fail fast is somewhat more robust than calling abort,
    // but abort is the closest we can manage without Visual Studio support
    // Need the header for abort()
    #include <stdlib.h>
    #define SAFE_INT_ABORT(msg) abort()

#endif

namespace safeint_exception_handlers
{
    class SafeInt_InvalidParameter
    {
    public:
        static SAFEINT_NORETURN void SafeIntOnOverflow() SAFEINT_NOTHROW
        {
            SafeIntExceptionAssert();
            SAFE_INT_ABORT("SafeInt Arithmetic Overflow");
        }

        static SAFEINT_NORETURN void SafeIntOnDivZero() SAFEINT_NOTHROW
        {
            SafeIntExceptionAssert();
            SAFE_INT_ABORT("SafeInt Divide By Zero");
        }
   };
}

typedef safeint_exception_handlers::SafeInt_InvalidParameter InvalidParameterExceptionHandler;
#define SafeIntDefaultExceptionHandler InvalidParameterExceptionHandler
#define SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_HANDLER_CPP 0
#endif

#endif // defined SafeIntDefaultExceptionHandler

// If an error handler is chosen other than C++ exceptions, such as Win32 exceptions, fail fast,
// or abort, then all methods become no throw. Some teams track throw() annotations closely,
// and the following option provides for this.

// If someone has defined their own exception handler,
// it is at least possible they might have also defined
// the throw annotation.
#if !defined SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
#if SAFEINT_EXCEPTION_HANDLER_CPP
#define SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
#else
#define SAFEINT_CPP_THROW SAFEINT_NOTHROW
#endif
#endif // SAFEINT_CPP_THROW

namespace safeint_internal
{
    // Wrappers around std::numeric_limits<T>::max() and ::min().  The
    // parenthesizing ( (std::numeric_limits<T>::max)() ) suppresses
    // function-like macro expansion, which matters when SafeInt.hpp is
    // included after a header that defines `min` / `max` as macros --
    // most notably <Windows.h> / <WinDef.h> when NOMINMAX is not also
    // defined.  Centralizing the wrapper means call sites read naturally
    // and future contributors can't accidentally reintroduce the bare
    // numeric_limits<T>::max() form (issue #51).  Note that the macro
    // defense lives only at the wrapper definition: a hypothetical
    // member function of int_traits<T> named max() / min() would not
    // help, since `int_traits<T>::max(` at the call site would still
    // trip the function-like-macro expansion.
    template < typename T >
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline T safeint_max() SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return (std::numeric_limits< T >::max)();
    }

    template < typename T >
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline T safeint_min() SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return (std::numeric_limits< T >::min)();
    }

    // If we have support for std<typetraits>, then we can do this easily, and detect enums as well
    template < typename T > class numeric_type;

    // Continue to special case bool
    template <> class numeric_type<bool> { public: enum { isBool = true, isInt = false }; };
    template < typename T > class numeric_type
    {
    public:
        enum
        {
            isBool = false, // We specialized out a bool
            // If it is an enum, then consider it an int type
            // This does allow someone to make a SafeInt from an enum type, which is not recommended,
            // but it also allows someone to add an enum value to a SafeInt, which is handy.
            isInt = std::is_integral<T>::value || std::is_enum<T>::value,
            isEnum = std::is_enum<T>::value
        };
    };

    template < typename T > class int_traits
    {
    public:
        static_assert(safeint_internal::numeric_type< T >::isInt, "Integer type required");
        static_assert(sizeof(T) <= 8, "SafeInt supports integer types up to 64 bits");

        enum
        {
            is64Bit = (sizeof(T) == 8),
            is32Bit = (sizeof(T) == 4),
            is16Bit = (sizeof(T) == 2),
            is8Bit = (sizeof(T) == 1),
            isLT32Bit = (sizeof(T) < 4),
            isLT64Bit = (sizeof(T) < 8),
            isInt8 = (sizeof(T) == 1 && std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed),
            isUint8 = (sizeof(T) == 1 && !std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed),
            isInt16 = (sizeof(T) == 2 && std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed),
            isUint16 = (sizeof(T) == 2 && !std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed),
            isInt32 = (sizeof(T) == 4 && std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed),
            isUint32 = (sizeof(T) == 4 && !std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed),
            isInt64 = (sizeof(T) == 8 && std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed),
            isUint64 = (sizeof(T) == 8 && !std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed),
            bitCount = (sizeof(T) * 8),
            isBool = ((T)2 == (T)1)
        };
    };

    template < typename T, typename U > class type_compare
    {
    public:
        enum
        {
            isBothSigned = (std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed),
            isBothUnsigned = (!std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && !std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed),
            isLikeSigned = ((bool)(std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed) == (bool)(std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed)),
            isCastOK = ((isLikeSigned && sizeof(T) >= sizeof(U)) ||
            (std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && sizeof(T) > sizeof(U))),
            isBothLT32Bit = (safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT32Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT32Bit),
            isBothLT64Bit = (safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT64Bit)
        };
    };

}
//all of the arithmetic operators can be solved by the same code within
//each of these regions without resorting to compile-time constant conditionals
//most operators collapse the problem into less than the 22 zones, but this is used
//as the first cut
//using this also helps ensure that we handle all of the possible cases correctly

template < typename T, typename U > class IntRegion
{
public:
    enum
    {
        //unsigned-unsigned zone
        IntZone_UintLT32_UintLT32 = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothUnsigned && safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothLT32Bit,
        IntZone_Uint32_UintLT64   = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothUnsigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::is32Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT64Bit,
        IntZone_UintLT32_Uint32   = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothUnsigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT32Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::is32Bit,
        IntZone_Uint64_Uint       = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothUnsigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::is64Bit,
        IntZone_UintLT64_Uint64    = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothUnsigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::is64Bit,
        //unsigned-signed
        IntZone_UintLT32_IntLT32  = !std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed && safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothLT32Bit,
        IntZone_Uint32_IntLT64    = safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint32 && std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT64Bit,
        IntZone_UintLT32_Int32    = !std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT32Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isInt32,
        IntZone_Uint64_Int        = safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint64 && std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT64Bit,
        IntZone_UintLT64_Int64    = !std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isInt64,
        IntZone_Uint64_Int64      = safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isInt64,
        //signed-signed
        IntZone_IntLT32_IntLT32   = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothSigned && safeint_internal::type_compare< T, U >::isBothLT32Bit,
        IntZone_Int32_IntLT64     = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothSigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::is32Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT64Bit,
        IntZone_IntLT32_Int32     = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothSigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT32Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::is32Bit,
        IntZone_Int64_Int64       = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothSigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isInt64,
        IntZone_Int64_Int         = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothSigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::is64Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT64Bit,
        IntZone_IntLT64_Int64     = safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothSigned && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::is64Bit,
        //signed-unsigned
        IntZone_IntLT32_UintLT32  = std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && !std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed && safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothLT32Bit,
        IntZone_Int32_UintLT32    = safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt32 && !std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT32Bit,
        IntZone_IntLT64_Uint32    = std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint32,
        IntZone_Int64_UintLT64    = safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64 && !std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isLT64Bit,
        IntZone_Int_Uint64        = std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit,
        IntZone_Int64_Uint64      = safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint64
    };
};

// In all of the following functions, we have two versions
// One for SafeInt, which throws C++ (or possibly SEH) exceptions
// The non-throwing versions are for use by the helper functions that return success and failure.
// Some of the non-throwing functions are not used, but are maintained for completeness.

// There's no real alternative to duplicating logic, but keeping the two versions
// immediately next to one another will help reduce problems

// useful function to help with getting the magnitude of a negative number
enum AbsMethod
{
    AbsMethodInt,
    AbsMethodInt64,
    AbsMethodNoop
};

template < typename T >
class GetAbsMethod
{
public:
    enum
    {
        method = safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit && std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed ? AbsMethodInt :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64 ? AbsMethodInt64 : AbsMethodNoop
    };
};

// let's go ahead and hard-code a dependency on the
// representation of negative numbers to keep compilers from getting overly
// happy with optimizing away things like -MIN_INT.
template < typename T, int > class AbsValueHelper;

template < typename T > class AbsValueHelper < T, AbsMethodInt>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static std::uint32_t Abs( T t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        SAFEINT_ASSERT( t < 0 );
        return ~(std::uint32_t)t + 1;
    }
};

template < typename T > class AbsValueHelper < T, AbsMethodInt64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static std::uint64_t Abs( T t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        SAFEINT_ASSERT( t < 0 );
        return ~(std::uint64_t)t + 1;
    }
};

template < typename T > class AbsValueHelper < T, AbsMethodNoop >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T Abs( T t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // Why are you calling Abs on an unsigned number ???
        SAFEINT_ASSERT( false );
        return t;
    }
};

// Helper classes to work keep compilers from
// optimizing away negation
template < typename T > class SignedNegation;

template <>
class SignedNegation <std::int32_t>
{
public:
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 static std::int32_t Value(std::uint64_t in) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return (std::int32_t)(~(std::uint32_t)in + 1);
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 static std::int32_t Value(std::uint32_t in) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return (std::int32_t)(~in + 1);
    }
};

template <>
class SignedNegation <std::int64_t>
{
public:
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 static std::int64_t Value(std::uint64_t in) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return (std::int64_t)(~in + 1);
    }
};

template < typename T, bool > class NegationHelper;
// Previous versions had an assert that the type being negated was 32-bit or higher
// In retrospect, this seems like something to just document
// Negation will normally upcast to int
// For example -(unsigned short)0xffff == (int)0xffff0001
// This class will retain the type, and will truncate, which may not be what
// you wanted
// If you want normal operator casting behavior, do this:
// SafeInt<unsigned short> ss = 0xffff;
// then:
// -(SafeInt<int>(ss))
// will then emit a signed int with the correct value and bitfield

// Note, unlike all of the other helper classes, the non-throwing negation
// doesn't make sense, isn't exposed or tested, so omit it

template < typename T > class NegationHelper <T, true> // Signed
{
public:
    template <typename E>
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T NegativeThrow( T t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // corner case
        if( t != safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            // cast prevents unneeded checks in the case of small ints
            return -t;
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Negative(T t, T& out)
    {
        // corner case
        if (t != safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>())
        {
            out = -t;
            return true;
        }
        return false;
    }
};

template < typename T > class NegationHelper <T, false> // unsigned
{
public:
    template <typename E>
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T NegativeThrow( T t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
#if defined SAFEINT_DISALLOW_UNSIGNED_NEGATION
        static_assert( sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsigned negation is unsupported" );
#endif
        // This may not be the most efficient approach, but you shouldn't be doing this
        return (T)SignedNegation<std::int64_t>::Value(t);
    }

    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Negative(T , T& /*out*/)
    {
        // This will only be used by the SafeNegation function
        return false;
    }
};

//core logic to determine casting behavior
enum CastMethod
{
    CastOK = 0,
    CastCheckLTZero,
    CastCheckGTMax,
    CastCheckSafeIntMinMaxUnsigned,
    CastCheckSafeIntMinMaxSigned,
    CastToFloat,
    CastFromFloat,
    CastToBool,
    CastFromBool,
    CastFromEnum
};


template < typename ToType, typename FromType >
class GetCastMethod
{
public:
    enum
    {
        method = ( safeint_internal::numeric_type<FromType>::isEnum )                     ? CastFromEnum :
                 ( safeint_internal::int_traits< FromType >::isBool &&
                     !safeint_internal::int_traits< ToType >::isBool )                    ? CastFromBool :

                 ( !safeint_internal::int_traits< FromType >::isBool &&
                     safeint_internal::int_traits< ToType >::isBool )                     ? CastToBool :

                 ( safeint_internal::type_compare< ToType, FromType >::isCastOK )      ? CastOK :

                 ( ( std::numeric_limits< ToType >::is_signed &&
                        !std::numeric_limits< FromType >::is_signed &&
                        sizeof( FromType ) >= sizeof( ToType ) ) ||
                   ( safeint_internal::type_compare< ToType, FromType >::isBothUnsigned &&
                        sizeof( FromType ) > sizeof( ToType ) ) )      ? CastCheckGTMax :

                 ( !std::numeric_limits< ToType >::is_signed &&
                     std::numeric_limits< FromType >::is_signed &&
                     sizeof( ToType ) >= sizeof( FromType ) )          ? CastCheckLTZero :

                 ( !std::numeric_limits< ToType >::is_signed )                    ? CastCheckSafeIntMinMaxUnsigned
                                                                       : CastCheckSafeIntMinMaxSigned
    };
};

template < typename FromType > class GetCastMethod < float, FromType >
{
public:
    enum{ method = CastToFloat };
};

template < typename FromType > class GetCastMethod < double, FromType >
{
public:
    enum{ method = CastToFloat };
};

template < typename FromType > class GetCastMethod < long double, FromType >
{
public:
    enum{ method = CastToFloat };
};

template < typename ToType > class GetCastMethod < ToType, float >
{
public:
    enum{ method = CastFromFloat };
};

template < typename ToType > class GetCastMethod < ToType, double >
{
public:
    enum{ method = CastFromFloat };
};

template < typename ToType > class GetCastMethod < ToType, long double >
{
public:
    enum{ method = CastFromFloat };
};

template < typename T, typename U, int > class SafeCastHelper;

template < typename T, typename U > class SafeCastHelper < T, U, CastOK >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool  Cast( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        t = (T)u;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrow( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        t = (T)u;
    }
};

// Float-to-int conversion.
//
// Determining whether a floating point value fits into an integer target
// is structurally similar to the integer-to-integer cast helpers above:
// the answer depends on the integer's size and signedness, not its exact
// type. We reduce to the eight unique cases via an enum, the same way
// CastMethod does for integer-to-integer casts.
//
// Acceptance rule: a value u is accepted iff truncation toward zero
// (the C cast's behavior) produces an in-range T, with one extra policy:
// any strictly-negative value is rejected for unsigned targets (even
// -0.5, which would truncate to 0). -0.0 is accepted because -0.0 == 0.0.
//
// For signed T this means accepting the open interval (T_MIN - 1, T_MAX + 1).
// For unsigned T it means accepting [0, T_MAX + 1), with -0.0 sneaking
// through the lower bound via IEEE 754 zero-equality.
//
// Bound representability. T_MAX + 1 is always a power of two (2^N for
// unsigned, 2^(N-1) for signed) and is exactly representable in any IEEE
// 754 float type because powers of two need zero mantissa bits, only an
// exponent. For unsigned T, the lower bound is 0.0, also trivially exact.
// For signed T, the lower bound is T_MIN - 1; this is exactly representable
// in U iff U has more than (bitcount of T - 1) mantissa bits. So:
//
//   T = int8  (bitcount 8):   need >= 8 mantissa bits.  All U types ok.
//   T = int16 (bitcount 16):  need >= 16 mantissa bits. All U types ok.
//   T = int32 (bitcount 32):  need >= 32 mantissa bits. float has 24, no.
//                             double has 53, yes. long double depends on
//                             platform (always >= 53, often more).
//   T = int64 (bitcount 64):  need >= 64 mantissa bits. float and double
//                             do not have enough. long double on 80-bit
//                             and 128-bit platforms does; long double on
//                             64-bit platforms (e.g. MSVC) does not.
//
// Where T_MIN - 1 is not exactly representable in U, there are also no
// representable U values in the open interval (T_MIN - 1, T_MIN). So an
// inclusive lower bound u >= T_MIN accepts exactly the same set of
// representable U values that the ideal open bound would. We pick between
// the open and inclusive forms at compile time via tag dispatch on
// numeric_limits<U>::digits.
//
// All literals are written as U(...) so the comparison happens in U's
// precision, with no implicit promotion. The cast-from-literal is always
// exact in this code: every literal is a power of two or a small integer
// within the relevant mantissa, by construction of the cases.

enum FloatBoundsCase
{
    FloatBounds_Int8,
    FloatBounds_Uint8,
    FloatBounds_Int16,
    FloatBounds_Uint16,
    FloatBounds_Int32,
    FloatBounds_Uint32,
    FloatBounds_Int64,
    FloatBounds_Uint64
};

template < typename T >
class GetFloatBoundsCase
{
public:
    enum
    {
        method = safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt8   ? FloatBounds_Int8   :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint8  ? FloatBounds_Uint8  :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt16  ? FloatBounds_Int16  :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint16 ? FloatBounds_Uint16 :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt32  ? FloatBounds_Int32  :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint32 ? FloatBounds_Uint32 :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64  ? FloatBounds_Int64  :
                                                               FloatBounds_Uint64
    };
};

template < int > class FloatBoundsHelper;

template <> class FloatBoundsHelper < FloatBounds_Int8 >
{
public:
    template < typename U > static bool InRange( U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u > U(-129.0L) && u < U(128.0L);
    }
};

template <> class FloatBoundsHelper < FloatBounds_Uint8 >
{
public:
    template < typename U > static bool InRange( U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u >= U(0.0L) && u < U(256.0L);
    }
};

template <> class FloatBoundsHelper < FloatBounds_Int16 >
{
public:
    template < typename U > static bool InRange( U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u > U(-32769.0L) && u < U(32768.0L);
    }
};

template <> class FloatBoundsHelper < FloatBounds_Uint16 >
{
public:
    template < typename U > static bool InRange( U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u >= U(0.0L) && u < U(65536.0L);
    }
};

template <> class FloatBoundsHelper < FloatBounds_Uint32 >
{
public:
    template < typename U > static bool InRange( U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u >= U(0.0L) && u < U(4294967296.0L);
    }
};

template <> class FloatBoundsHelper < FloatBounds_Uint64 >
{
public:
    template < typename U > static bool InRange( U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u >= U(0.0L) && u < U(18446744073709551616.0L);
    }
};

// Int32 and Int64 use tag dispatch on whether T_MIN - 1 is exactly
// representable in U.

template <> class FloatBoundsHelper < FloatBounds_Int32 >
{
public:
    template < typename U > static bool InRange( U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // T_MIN - 1 = -2^31 - 1 needs >= 32 mantissa bits to represent
        // exactly. double (53) and long double (>= 53) qualify; float (24)
        // does not.
        return InRangeImpl(u,
            std::integral_constant< bool,
                (std::numeric_limits< U >::digits >= 32) >());
    }

private:
    // T_MIN - 1 is exactly representable in U: open lower bound.
    template < typename U >
    static bool InRangeImpl( U u, std::true_type ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u > U(-2147483649.0L) && u < U(2147483648.0L);
    }

    // T_MIN - 1 is not representable; gap from T_MIN-1 to T_MIN contains
    // no representable U values; inclusive lower bound is equivalent.
    template < typename U >
    static bool InRangeImpl( U u, std::false_type ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u >= U(-2147483648.0L) && u < U(2147483648.0L);
    }
};

template <> class FloatBoundsHelper < FloatBounds_Int64 >
{
public:
    template < typename U > static bool InRange( U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // T_MIN - 1 = -2^63 - 1 needs >= 64 mantissa bits. Not satisfied
        // by float (24) or double (53). For long double, satisfied on
        // 80-bit (mantissa 64) and 128-bit (mantissa 113); not satisfied
        // on 64-bit-long-double platforms (e.g. MSVC).
        return InRangeImpl(u,
            std::integral_constant< bool,
                (std::numeric_limits< U >::digits >= 64) >());
    }

private:
    template < typename U >
    static bool InRangeImpl( U u, std::true_type ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u > U(-9223372036854775809.0L) && u < U(9223372036854775808.0L);
    }

    template < typename U >
    static bool InRangeImpl( U u, std::false_type ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return u >= U(-9223372036854775808.0L) && u < U(9223372036854775808.0L);
    }
};

// special case floats and doubles
template < typename T, typename U > class SafeCastHelper < T, U, CastFromFloat >
{
public:

    static bool Cast( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // Reject NaN up front. The InRange check below would also reject
        // NaN (every ordered comparison with NaN is false, so both halves
        // of the && are false), but making it explicit keeps the rest of
        // the code readable without requiring the reader to be a floating-
        // point expert.
        if (std::isnan(u)) { return false; }

        if (!FloatBoundsHelper< GetFloatBoundsCase< T >::method >::InRange(u))
        {
            return false;
        }

        t = (T)u;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    static void CastThrow( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (std::isnan(u)) { E::SafeIntOnOverflow(); }

        if (!FloatBoundsHelper< GetFloatBoundsCase< T >::method >::InRange(u))
        {
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
        }

        t = (T)u;
    }
};


// Int-to-float conversion.
//
// Casting an integer to a float can silently lose precision when the
// integer has more significant bits than the float's mantissa can hold.
// For example, the 54-bit int64 value 2^53 + 1 cannot be represented
// exactly in a double (53-bit mantissa); it rounds to 2^53 or 2^53 + 2.
//
// By default this is allowed silently -- the user asked for a float,
// they get one, and most code that converts integers to floats is fine
// with the closest-representable result (graphics, statistics, interop
// with float APIs). When SAFEINT_STRICT_FLOAT_CONVERSION is defined,
// SafeInt instead throws on any precision loss, so the user is told
// when bit-exact preservation isn't possible.
//
// Detection: round-trip via the float and compare. If (U)((T)u) == u
// then the cast preserved every bit; otherwise some bits were lost.
// This correctly handles values like (uint64_t)0x1234 << 13, which have
// more total bits than the mantissa but whose significand fits (the
// trailing zeros come "for free" via the float's exponent), as well as
// powers of two of any magnitude.
//
// We dispatch on whether precision loss is even possible for this (T,U)
// pair at compile time. When std::numeric_limits<U>::digits is no
// greater than std::numeric_limits<T>::digits, every value of U is
// exactly representable in T; no runtime check needed. This skips the
// check entirely for small integer types into float, every standard
// integer into double (except int64/uint64), and so on.

template < typename T, typename U > class SafeCastHelper < T, U, CastToFloat >
{
public:
    // T is the target float type; U is the source integer type.

    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Cast( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return CastImpl( u, t, PrecisionLossPossible() );
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrow( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        CastThrowImpl< E >( u, t, PrecisionLossPossible() );
    }

private:
    typedef std::integral_constant< bool,
        (std::numeric_limits< U >::digits > std::numeric_limits< T >::digits) >
        PrecisionLossPossible;

    // Precision loss not possible for this (T, U) pair: plain cast.
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool CastImpl( U u, T& t, std::false_type ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        t = (T)u;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrowImpl( U u, T& t, std::false_type ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        t = (T)u;
    }

    // Precision loss is possible for this (T, U) pair. Under the strict
    // flag, round-trip and reject any value that doesn't preserve. With
    // the flag off, fall through to a plain cast (existing behavior).
    //
    // The round-trip uses SafeCastHelper<U, T, CastFromFloat>::Cast to
    // go from the float back to U. This is important: the naive
    // formulation (U)((T)u) is UB when the rounding pushes the float
    // out of U's range, which happens at values near U's bounds (e.g.
    // INT32_MAX casting to float rounds up to 2^31, which is outside
    // int32 range, and (int32_t)2^31 is UB). The CastFromFloat helper
    // does a defined range check first, treating "rounded out of range"
    // as another form of precision loss.
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool CastImpl( U u, T& t, std::true_type ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
#ifdef SAFEINT_STRICT_FLOAT_CONVERSION
        T f = (T)u;
        U back;
        if ( !SafeCastHelper< U, T, CastFromFloat >::Cast( f, back ) ) { return false; }
        if ( back != u ) { return false; }
        t = f;
#else
        t = (T)u;
#endif
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrowImpl( U u, T& t, std::true_type ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
#ifdef SAFEINT_STRICT_FLOAT_CONVERSION
        T f = (T)u;
        U back;
        if ( !SafeCastHelper< U, T, CastFromFloat >::Cast( f, back ) ) { E::SafeIntOnOverflow(); }
        if ( back != u ) { E::SafeIntOnOverflow(); }
        t = f;
#else
        t = (T)u;
#endif
    }
};


template < typename T, typename U > class SafeCastHelper < T, U, CastFromEnum >
{
    // Route through the enum's actual underlying type rather than always
    // through int.  Wide enums (underlying_type wider than int, or values
    // that don't fit in int) were previously truncated by static_cast<int>
    // before the range check ran -- a SafeInt<uint64_t> built from an
    // enum class : uint64_t value of 0x100000001 would silently store 1.
    // (Issue #77.)
    typedef typename std::underlying_type< U >::type underlying;
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Cast(U u, T& t) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return SafeCastHelper< T, underlying, GetCastMethod< T, underlying >::method >::Cast(static_cast<underlying>(u), t);
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrow(U u, T& t) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        SafeCastHelper< T, underlying, GetCastMethod< T, underlying >::method >::template CastThrow< E >(static_cast<underlying>(u), t);
    }
};

// Match on any method where a bool is cast to type T
template < typename T > class SafeCastHelper < T, bool, CastFromBool >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Cast( bool b, T& t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        t = (T)( b ? 1 : 0 );
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrow( bool b, T& t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        t = (T)( b ? 1 : 0 );
    }
};

template < typename T > class SafeCastHelper < bool, T, CastToBool >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Cast( T t, bool& b ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        b = !!t;
        return true;
    }

    // CastThrow is not needed.
    // This is because CastThrow is only ever called inside various multiply, divide, add, and subtract methods, none of which make sense for one of
    // the operands to be bool. It is also called within the various direct casts that will cast the SafeInt instance to various types, but there is nothing
    // to check for a cast to bool, and it is implemented directly without needing this method.

    // There is a call to Cast because it is used in the SafeCast non-throwing function.
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SafeCastHelper < T, U, CastCheckLTZero >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Cast( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( u < 0 )
            return false;

        t = (T)u;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrow( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( u < 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        t = (T)u;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SafeCastHelper < T, U, CastCheckGTMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Cast( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( u > (U)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            return false;

        t = (T)u;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrow( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( u > (U)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        t = (T)u;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SafeCastHelper < T, U, CastCheckSafeIntMinMaxUnsigned >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Cast( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // U is signed - T could be either signed or unsigned
        if( u > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || u < 0 )
            return false;

        t = (T)u;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrow( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // U is signed - T could be either signed or unsigned
        if( u > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || u < 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        t = (T)u;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SafeCastHelper < T, U, CastCheckSafeIntMinMaxSigned >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Cast( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // T, U are signed
        if( u > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || u < safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
            return false;

        t = (T)u;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void CastThrow( U u, T& t ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        //T, U are signed
        if( u > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || u < safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        t = (T)u;
    }
};

//core logic to determine whether a comparison is valid, or needs special treatment
enum ComparisonMethod
{
    ComparisonMethod_Ok = 0,
    ComparisonMethod_CastInt,
    ComparisonMethod_CastInt64,
    ComparisonMethod_UnsignedT,
    ComparisonMethod_UnsignedU
};

    // Note - the standard is arguably broken in the case of some integer
    // conversion operations
    // For example, signed char a = -1 = 0xff
    //              unsigned int b = 0xffffffff
    // If you then test if a < b, a value-preserving cast
    // is made, and you're essentially testing
    // (unsigned int)a < b == false
    //
    // I do not think this makes sense - if you perform
    // a cast to an std::int64_t, which can clearly preserve both value and signedness
    // then you get a different and intuitively correct answer
    // IMHO, -1 should be less than 4 billion
    // If you prefer to retain the ANSI standard behavior
    // insert #define ANSI_CONVERSIONS into your source
    // Behavior differences occur in the following cases:
    // 8, 16, and 32-bit signed int, unsigned 32-bit int
    // any signed int, unsigned 64-bit int
    // Note - the signed int must be negative to show the problem

template < typename T, typename U >
class ValidComparison
{
public:
    enum
    {
        method = ( ( safeint_internal::type_compare< T, U >::isLikeSigned )                              ? ComparisonMethod_Ok :
                 ( ( std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && sizeof(T) < 8 && sizeof(U) < 4 ) ||
                   ( std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed && sizeof(T) < 4 && sizeof(U) < 8 ) )  ? ComparisonMethod_CastInt :
                 ( ( std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && sizeof(U) < 8 ) ||
                   ( std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed && sizeof(T) < 8 ) )                   ? ComparisonMethod_CastInt64 :
                 ( !std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed )                                       ? ComparisonMethod_UnsignedT :
                                                                                       ComparisonMethod_UnsignedU )
    };
};

template <typename T, typename U, int state> class EqualityTest;

template < typename T, typename U > class EqualityTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_Ok >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool IsEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return ( t == u ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class EqualityTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_CastInt >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool IsEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return ( (int)t == (int)u ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class EqualityTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_CastInt64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool IsEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return ( (std::int64_t)t == (std::int64_t)u ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class EqualityTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_UnsignedT >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool IsEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //one operand is 32 or 64-bit unsigned, and the other is signed and the same size or smaller
        if( u < 0 )
            return false;

        //else safe to cast to type T
        return ( t == (T)u );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class EqualityTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_UnsignedU>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool IsEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //one operand is 32 or 64-bit unsigned, and the other is signed and the same size or smaller
        if( t < 0 )
            return false;

        //else safe to cast to type U
        return ( (U)t == u );
    }
};

template <typename T, typename U, int state> class GreaterThanTest;

template < typename T, typename U > class GreaterThanTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_Ok >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool GreaterThan( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return ( t > u ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class GreaterThanTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_CastInt >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool GreaterThan( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return ( (int)t > (int)u ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class GreaterThanTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_CastInt64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool GreaterThan( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return ( (std::int64_t)t > (std::int64_t)u ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class GreaterThanTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_UnsignedT >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool GreaterThan( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // one operand is 32 or 64-bit unsigned, and the other is signed and the same size or smaller
        if( u < 0 )
            return true;

        // else safe to cast to type T
        return ( t > (T)u );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class GreaterThanTest< T, U, ComparisonMethod_UnsignedU >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool GreaterThan( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // one operand is 32 or 64-bit unsigned, and the other is signed and the same size or smaller
        if( t < 0 )
            return false;

        // else safe to cast to type U
        return ( (U)t > u );
    }
};

// Modulus is simpler than comparison, but follows much the same logic
// using this set of functions, it can't fail except in a div 0 situation
template <typename T, typename U, int method > class ModulusHelper;

template <typename U, bool> class mod_corner_case;

template <typename U> class mod_corner_case <U, true> // signed
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool is_undefined(U u)
    {
        return (u == -1);
    }
};

template <typename U> class mod_corner_case <U, false> // unsigned
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool is_undefined(U)
    {
        return false;
    }
};

template <typename T, typename U> class ModulusHelper <T, U, ComparisonMethod_Ok>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Modulus( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;

        //trap corner case
        if(mod_corner_case<U, std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed >::is_undefined(u))
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        result = (T)(t % u);
        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void ModulusThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();

        //trap corner case
        if (mod_corner_case<U, std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed >::is_undefined(u))
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        result = (T)(t % u);
    }
};

template <typename T, typename U> class ModulusHelper <T, U, ComparisonMethod_CastInt>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Modulus( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;

        //trap corner case
        if (mod_corner_case<U, std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed >::is_undefined(u))
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        result = (T)(t % u);
        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void ModulusThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();

        //trap corner case
        if (mod_corner_case<U, std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed >::is_undefined(u))
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        result = (T)(t % u);
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class ModulusHelper< T, U, ComparisonMethod_CastInt64>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Modulus( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;

        //trap corner case
        if (mod_corner_case<U, std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed >::is_undefined(u))
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        result = (T)((std::int64_t)t % (std::int64_t)u);
        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void ModulusThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();

        if (mod_corner_case<U, std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed >::is_undefined(u))
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        result = (T)((std::int64_t)t % (std::int64_t)u);
    }
};

// T is std::uint64_t, U is any signed int
template < typename T, typename U > class ModulusHelper< T, U, ComparisonMethod_UnsignedT>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Modulus( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;

        // u could be negative - if so, need to convert to positive
        // casts below are always safe due to the way modulus works
        if(u < 0)
            result = (T)(t % AbsValueHelper< U, GetAbsMethod< U >::method >::Abs(u));
        else
            result = (T)(t % u);

        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void ModulusThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();

        // u could be negative - if so, need to convert to positive
        if(u < 0)
            result = (T)(t % AbsValueHelper< U, GetAbsMethod< U >::method >::Abs( u ));
        else
            result = (T)(t % u);
    }
};

// U is std::uint64_t, T any signed int
template < typename T, typename U > class ModulusHelper< T, U, ComparisonMethod_UnsignedU>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Modulus( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;

        //t could be negative - if so, need to convert to positive
        if(t < 0)
            result = (T)( ~( AbsValueHelper< T, GetAbsMethod< T >::method >::Abs( t ) % u ) + 1 );
        else
            result = (T)((T)t % u);

        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void ModulusThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();

        //t could be negative - if so, need to convert to positive
        if(t < 0)
            result = (T)( ~( AbsValueHelper< T, GetAbsMethod< T >::method >::Abs( t ) % u ) + 1);
        else
            result = (T)( (T)t % u );
    }
};

//core logic to determine method to check multiplication
enum MultiplicationState
{
    MultiplicationState_CastInt = 0,  // One or both signed, smaller than 32-bit
    MultiplicationState_CastInt64,    // One or both signed, smaller than 64-bit
    MultiplicationState_CastUint,     // Both are unsigned, smaller than 32-bit
    MultiplicationState_CastUint64,   // Both are unsigned, both 32-bit or smaller
    MultiplicationState_Uint64Uint,   // Both are unsigned, lhs 64-bit, rhs 32-bit or smaller
    MultiplicationState_Uint64Uint64, // Both are unsigned int64
    MultiplicationState_Uint64Int,    // lhs is unsigned int64, rhs int32
    MultiplicationState_Uint64Int64,  // lhs is unsigned int64, rhs signed int64
    MultiplicationState_UintUint64,   // Both are unsigned, lhs 32-bit or smaller, rhs 64-bit
    MultiplicationState_UintInt64,    // lhs unsigned 32-bit or less, rhs int64
    MultiplicationState_Int64Uint,    // lhs int64, rhs unsigned int32
    MultiplicationState_Int64Int64,   // lhs int64, rhs int64
    MultiplicationState_Int64Int,     // lhs int64, rhs int32
    MultiplicationState_IntUint64,    // lhs int, rhs unsigned int64
    MultiplicationState_IntInt64,     // lhs int, rhs int64
    MultiplicationState_Int64Uint64,  // lhs int64, rhs uint64
    MultiplicationState_Error
};

template < typename T, typename U >
class MultiplicationMethod
{
public:
    enum
    {
                 // unsigned-unsigned
        method = (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_UintLT32  ? MultiplicationState_CastUint :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint32_UintLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_Uint32)   ? MultiplicationState_CastUint64 :
                  safeint_internal::type_compare< T,U >::isBothUnsigned &&
                  safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint64 ? MultiplicationState_Uint64Uint64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Uint)       ? MultiplicationState_Uint64Uint :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT64_Uint64)   ? MultiplicationState_UintUint64 :
                 // unsigned-signed
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_IntLT32)  ? MultiplicationState_CastInt :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint32_IntLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_Int32)    ? MultiplicationState_CastInt64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Int)        ? MultiplicationState_Uint64Int :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT64_Int64)    ? MultiplicationState_UintInt64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Int64)      ? MultiplicationState_Uint64Int64 :
                 // signed-signed
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_IntLT32)   ? MultiplicationState_CastInt :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int32_IntLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_Int32)     ? MultiplicationState_CastInt64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Int64)       ? MultiplicationState_Int64Int64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Int)         ? MultiplicationState_Int64Int :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT64_Int64)     ? MultiplicationState_IntInt64 :
                 // signed-unsigned
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_UintLT32)  ? MultiplicationState_CastInt :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int32_UintLT32 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT64_Uint32)    ? MultiplicationState_CastInt64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_UintLT64)    ? MultiplicationState_Int64Uint :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int_Uint64)        ? MultiplicationState_IntUint64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Uint64       ? MultiplicationState_Int64Uint64 :
                  MultiplicationState_Error ) )
    };
};

template <typename T, typename U, int state> class MultiplicationHelper;

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_CastInt>
{
public:
    //accepts signed, both less than 32-bit
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        int tmp = t * u;

        if( tmp > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || tmp < safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
            return false;

        ret = (T)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void MultiplyThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        int tmp = t * u;

        if( tmp > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || tmp < safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        ret = (T)tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_CastUint >
{
public:
    //accepts unsigned, both less than 32-bit
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        unsigned int tmp = (unsigned int)t * (unsigned int)u;

        if( tmp > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            return false;

        ret = (T)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void MultiplyThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        unsigned int tmp = (unsigned int)( t * u );

        if( tmp > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        ret = (T)tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_CastInt64>
{
public:
    //mixed signed or both signed where at least one argument is 32-bit, and both a 32-bit or less
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)t * (std::int64_t)u;

        if(tmp > (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || tmp < (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>())
            return false;

        ret = (T)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void MultiplyThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)t * (std::int64_t)u;

        if(tmp > (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || tmp < (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>())
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        ret = (T)tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_CastUint64>
{
public:
    //both unsigned where at least one argument is 32-bit, and both are 32-bit or less
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)t * (std::uint64_t)u;

        if(tmp > (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>())
            return false;

        ret = (T)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void MultiplyThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)t * (std::uint64_t)u;

        if(tmp > (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>())
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        ret = (T)tmp;
    }
};

// T = left arg and return type
// U = right arg
template < typename T, typename U > class LargeIntRegMultiply;

#if SAFEINT_HAS_INT128

SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 inline bool MultiplyUint64(std::uint64_t a, std::uint64_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    safeint_uint128_t tmp = (safeint_uint128_t)a * (safeint_uint128_t)b;

    if ((tmp >> 64) == 0)
    {
        *pRet = (std::uint64_t)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    return false;
}

SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 inline bool MultiplyInt64(std::int64_t a, std::int64_t b, std::int64_t* pRet) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    safeint_int128_t tmp = (safeint_int128_t)a * (safeint_int128_t)b;
    *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
    std::int64_t tmp_high = (std::int64_t)((safeint_uint128_t)tmp >> 64);

    // If only one input is negative, result must be negative, or zero
    if( (a ^ b) < 0 )
    {
        if( (tmp_high == -1 && *pRet < 0) ||
            (tmp_high == 0 && *pRet == 0))
        {
            return true;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        if (tmp_high == 0)
        {
            return (std::uint64_t)*pRet <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>();
        }
    }

    return false;
}

#endif

#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS

#if SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_VISUAL_STUDIO
// As usual, unsigned is easy
inline bool MultiplyUint64( std::uint64_t a, std::uint64_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    std::uint64_t ulHigh = 0;
    *pRet = _umul128(a , b, &ulHigh);
    return ulHigh == 0;
}

// Signed, is not so easy
inline bool MultiplyInt64( std::int64_t a, std::int64_t b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    std::int64_t llHigh = 0;
    *pRet = _mul128(a , b, &llHigh);

    // Now we need to figure out what we expect
    // If llHigh is 0, then treat *pRet as unsigned
    // If llHigh is < 0, then treat *pRet as signed

    if( (a ^ b) < 0 )
    {
        // Negative result expected
        if( llHigh == -1 && *pRet < 0 ||
            llHigh == 0 && *pRet == 0 )
        {
            // Everything is within range
            return true;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        // Result should be positive
        // Check for overflow
        if( llHigh == 0 && (std::uint64_t)*pRet <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
            return true;
    }
    return false;
}
#elif SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_GCC || SAFEINT_COMPILER == SAFEINT_COMPILER_CLANG

SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 inline bool MultiplyUint64(std::uint64_t a, std::uint64_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !__builtin_umulll_overflow(a, b, (unsigned long long*)pRet);
}

SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 inline bool MultiplyInt64(std::int64_t a, std::int64_t b, std::int64_t* pRet) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !__builtin_smulll_overflow(a, b, (long long*)pRet);
}

#else
// If you are aware of intrinsics for some other platform, please file an issue
# error Intrinsics enabled, no available intrinics defined
#endif

#endif

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( const std::uint64_t& a, const std::uint64_t& b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        return MultiplyUint64( a, b, pRet );
#else
        std::uint32_t aHigh = 0, aLow = 0, bHigh = 0, bLow = 0;

        // Consider that a*b can be broken up into:
        // (aHigh * 2^32 + aLow) * (bHigh * 2^32 + bLow)
        // => (aHigh * bHigh * 2^64) + (aLow * bHigh * 2^32) + (aHigh * bLow * 2^32) + (aLow * bLow)
        // Note - same approach applies for 128 bit math on a 64-bit system

        aHigh = (std::uint32_t)(a >> 32);
        aLow  = (std::uint32_t)a;
        bHigh = (std::uint32_t)(b >> 32);
        bLow  = (std::uint32_t)b;

        *pRet = 0;

        if(aHigh == 0)
        {
            if(bHigh != 0)
            {
                *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)bHigh;
            }
        }
        else if(bHigh == 0)
        {
            if(aHigh != 0)
            {
                *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aHigh * (std::uint64_t)bLow;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            return false;
        }

        if(*pRet != 0)
        {
            std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

            if((std::uint32_t)(*pRet >> 32) != 0)
                return false;

            *pRet <<= 32;
            tmp = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)bLow;
            *pRet += tmp;

            if(*pRet < tmp)
                return false;

            return true;
        }

        *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)bLow;
        return true;
#endif
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( const std::uint64_t& a, const std::uint64_t& b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        if( !MultiplyUint64( a, b, pRet ) )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#else
        std::uint32_t aHigh = 0, aLow = 0, bHigh = 0, bLow = 0;

        // Consider that a*b can be broken up into:
        // (aHigh * 2^32 + aLow) * (bHigh * 2^32 + bLow)
        // => (aHigh * bHigh * 2^64) + (aLow * bHigh * 2^32) + (aHigh * bLow * 2^32) + (aLow * bLow)
        // Note - same approach applies for 128 bit math on a 64-bit system

        aHigh = (std::uint32_t)(a >> 32);
        aLow  = (std::uint32_t)a;
        bHigh = (std::uint32_t)(b >> 32);
        bLow  = (std::uint32_t)b;

        *pRet = 0;

        if(aHigh == 0)
        {
            if(bHigh != 0)
            {
                *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)bHigh;
            }
        }
        else if(bHigh == 0)
        {
            if(aHigh != 0)
            {
                *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aHigh * (std::uint64_t)bLow;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
        }

        if(*pRet != 0)
        {
            std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

            if((std::uint32_t)(*pRet >> 32) != 0)
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

            *pRet <<= 32;
            tmp = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)bLow;
            *pRet += tmp;

            if(*pRet < tmp)
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

            return;
        }

        *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)bLow;
#endif
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( const std::uint64_t& a, std::uint32_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        return MultiplyUint64( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet );
#else
        std::uint32_t aHigh = 0, aLow = 0;

        // Consider that a*b can be broken up into:
        // (aHigh * 2^32 + aLow) * b
        // => (aHigh * b * 2^32) + (aLow * b)

        aHigh = (std::uint32_t)(a >> 32);
        aLow  = (std::uint32_t)a;

        *pRet = 0;

        if(aHigh != 0)
        {
            *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aHigh * (std::uint64_t)b;

            std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

            if((std::uint32_t)(*pRet >> 32) != 0)
                return false;

            *pRet <<= 32;
            tmp = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)b;
            *pRet += tmp;

            if(*pRet < tmp)
                return false;

            return true;
        }

        *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)b;
        return true;
#endif
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( const std::uint64_t& a, std::uint32_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        if( !MultiplyUint64( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet ) )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#else
        std::uint32_t aHigh = 0, aLow = 0;

        // Consider that a*b can be broken up into:
        // (aHigh * 2^32 + aLow) * b
        // => (aHigh * b * 2^32) + (aLow * b)

        aHigh = (std::uint32_t)(a >> 32);
        aLow  = (std::uint32_t)a;

        *pRet = 0;

        if(aHigh != 0)
        {
            *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aHigh * (std::uint64_t)b;

            std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

            if((std::uint32_t)(*pRet >> 32) != 0)
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

            *pRet <<= 32;
            tmp = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)b;
            *pRet += tmp;

            if(*pRet < tmp)
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

            return;
        }

        *pRet = (std::uint64_t)aLow * (std::uint64_t)b;
        return;
#endif
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::int32_t >
{
public:
    // Intrinsic not needed
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( const std::uint64_t& a, std::int32_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( b < 0 && a != 0 )
            return false;

#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        return MultiplyUint64( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet );
#else
        return LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >::RegMultiply(a, (std::uint32_t)b, pRet);
#endif
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( const std::uint64_t& a, std::int32_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( b < 0 && a != 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        if( !MultiplyUint64( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet ) )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#else
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( a, (std::uint32_t)b, pRet );
#endif
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::int64_t >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( const std::uint64_t& a, std::int64_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( b < 0 && a != 0 )
            return false;

#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        return MultiplyUint64( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet );
#else
        return LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply(a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet);
#endif
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( const std::uint64_t& a, std::int64_t b, std::uint64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( b < 0 && a != 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        if( !MultiplyUint64( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet ) )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#else
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet );
#endif
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int32_t, std::uint64_t >
{
public:
    // Devolves into ordinary 64-bit calculation
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool RegMultiply( std::int32_t a, const std::uint64_t& b, std::int32_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        std::uint32_t bHigh = 0, bLow = 0;
        bool fIsNegative = false;

        // Consider that a*b can be broken up into:
        // (aHigh * 2^32 + aLow) * (bHigh * 2^32 + bLow)
        // => (aHigh * bHigh * 2^64) + (aLow * bHigh * 2^32) + (aHigh * bLow * 2^32) + (aLow * bLow)
        // aHigh == 0 implies:
        // ( aLow * bHigh * 2^32 ) + ( aLow + bLow )
        // If the first part is != 0, fail

        bHigh = (std::uint32_t)(b >> 32);
        bLow  = (std::uint32_t)b;

        *pRet = 0;

        if(bHigh != 0 && a != 0)
            return false;

        if( a < 0 )
        {

            a = (std::int32_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int32_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int32_t >::method >::Abs(a);
            fIsNegative = true;
        }

        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint32_t)a * (std::uint64_t)bLow;

        if( !fIsNegative )
        {
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int32_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = (std::int32_t)tmp;
                return true;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int32_t>()+1 )
            {
                *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int32_t >::Value( tmp );
                return true;
            }
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void RegMultiplyThrow( std::int32_t a, const std::uint64_t& b, std::int32_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        std::uint32_t bHigh = 0, bLow = 0;
        bool fIsNegative = false;

        // Consider that a*b can be broken up into:
        // (aHigh * 2^32 + aLow) * (bHigh * 2^32 + bLow)
        // => (aHigh * bHigh * 2^64) + (aLow * bHigh * 2^32) + (aHigh * bLow * 2^32) + (aLow * bLow)

        bHigh = (std::uint32_t)(b >> 32);
        bLow  = (std::uint32_t)b;

        *pRet = 0;

        if(bHigh != 0 && a != 0)
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        if( a < 0 )
        {
            a = (std::int32_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int32_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int32_t >::method >::Abs(a);
            fIsNegative = true;
        }

        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint32_t)a * (std::uint64_t)bLow;

        if( !fIsNegative )
        {
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int32_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = (std::int32_t)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int32_t>()+1 )
            {
                *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int32_t >::Value( tmp );
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::uint64_t >
{
public:
    // Becomes ordinary 64-bit multiplication, intrinsic not needed
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool RegMultiply( std::uint32_t a, const std::uint64_t& b, std::uint32_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // Consider that a*b can be broken up into:
        // (bHigh * 2^32 + bLow) * a
        // => (bHigh * a * 2^32) + (bLow * a)
        // In this case, the result must fit into 32-bits
        // If bHigh != 0 && a != 0, immediate error.

        if( (std::uint32_t)(b >> 32) != 0 && a != 0 )
            return false;

        std::uint64_t tmp = b * (std::uint64_t)a;

        if( (std::uint32_t)(tmp >> 32) != 0 ) // overflow
            return false;

        *pRet = (std::uint32_t)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void RegMultiplyThrow( std::uint32_t a, const std::uint64_t& b, std::uint32_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( (std::uint32_t)(b >> 32) != 0 && a != 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        std::uint64_t tmp = b * (std::uint64_t)a;

        if( (std::uint32_t)(tmp >> 32) != 0 ) // overflow
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        *pRet = (std::uint32_t)tmp;
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::int64_t >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool RegMultiply( std::uint32_t a, const std::int64_t& b, std::uint32_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( b < 0 && a != 0 )
            return false;
        return LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet );
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void RegMultiplyThrow( std::uint32_t a, const std::int64_t& b, std::uint32_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( b < 0 && a != 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::uint64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( a, (std::uint64_t)b, pRet );
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::int64_t >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( const std::int64_t& a, const std::int64_t& b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        return MultiplyInt64( a, b, pRet );
#else
        bool aNegative = false;
        bool bNegative = false;

        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t a1 = a;
        std::int64_t b1 = b;

        if( a1 < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(a1);
        }

        if( b1 < 0 )
        {
            bNegative = true;
            b1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(b1);
        }

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( (std::uint64_t)a1, (std::uint64_t)b1, &tmp ) )
        {
            // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
            if( aNegative ^ bNegative )
            {
                // Result must be negative
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int64_t >::Value( tmp );
                    return true;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // Result must be positive
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
        }

        return false;
#endif
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( const std::int64_t& a, const std::int64_t& b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        if( !MultiplyInt64( a, b, pRet ) )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#else
        bool aNegative = false;
        bool bNegative = false;

        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t a1 = a;
        std::int64_t b1 = b;

        if( a1 < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(a1);
        }

        if( b1 < 0 )
        {
            bNegative = true;
            b1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(b1);
        }

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( (std::uint64_t)a1, (std::uint64_t)b1, &tmp );

        // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow or we'd be in the exception handler
        if( aNegative ^ bNegative )
        {
            // Result must be negative
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int64_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int64_t >::Value( tmp );
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // Result must be positive
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#endif
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::uint32_t >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( const std::int64_t& a, std::uint32_t b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        return MultiplyInt64( a, (std::int64_t)b, pRet );
#else
        bool aNegative = false;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t a1 = a;

        if( a1 < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(a1);
        }

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >::RegMultiply( (std::uint64_t)a1, b, &tmp ) )
        {
            // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
            if( aNegative )
            {
                // Result must be negative
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int64_t >::Value( tmp );
                    return true;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // Result must be positive
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
        }

        return false;
#endif
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( const std::int64_t& a, std::uint32_t b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        if( !MultiplyInt64( a, (std::int64_t)b, pRet ) )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#else
        bool aNegative = false;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t a1 = a;

        if( a1 < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(a1);
        }

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( (std::uint64_t)a1, b, &tmp );

        // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
        if( aNegative )
        {
            // Result must be negative
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int64_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int64_t >::Value( tmp );
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // Result must be positive
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#endif
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::int32_t >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( const std::int64_t& a, std::int32_t b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        return MultiplyInt64( a, (std::int64_t)b, pRet );
#else
        bool aNegative = false;
        bool bNegative = false;

        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t a1 = a;
        std::int64_t b1 = b;

        if( a1 < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(a1);
        }

        if( b1 < 0 )
        {
            bNegative = true;
            b1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(b1);
        }

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >::RegMultiply( (std::uint64_t)a1, (std::uint32_t)b1, &tmp ) )
        {
            // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
            if( aNegative ^ bNegative )
            {
                // Result must be negative
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int64_t >::Value( tmp );
                    return true;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // Result must be positive
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
        }

        return false;
#endif
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( std::int64_t a, std::int32_t b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        if( !MultiplyInt64( a, (std::int64_t)b, pRet ) )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#else
        bool aNegative = false;
        bool bNegative = false;

        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

        if( a < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(a);
        }

        if( b < 0 )
        {
            bNegative = true;
            b = (std::int32_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int32_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int32_t >::method >::Abs(b);
        }

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( (std::uint64_t)a, (std::uint32_t)b, &tmp );

        // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
        if( aNegative ^ bNegative )
        {
            // Result must be negative
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int64_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int64_t >::Value( tmp );
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // Result must be positive
            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#endif
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int32_t, std::int64_t >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( std::int32_t a, const std::int64_t& b, std::int32_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;

        if( MultiplyInt64( a, b, &tmp ) )
        {
            if( tmp > safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int32_t>() ||
                tmp < safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int32_t>() )
            {
                return false;
            }

            *pRet = (std::int32_t)tmp;
            return true;
        }
        return false;
#else
        bool aNegative = false;
        bool bNegative = false;

        std::uint32_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t b1 = b;

        if( a < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a = (std::int32_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int32_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int32_t >::method >::Abs(a);
        }

        if( b1 < 0 )
        {
            bNegative = true;
            b1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(b1);
        }

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( (std::uint32_t)a, (std::uint64_t)b1, &tmp ) )
        {
            // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
            if( aNegative ^ bNegative )
            {
                // Result must be negative
                if( tmp <= (std::uint32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int32_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int32_t >::Value( tmp );
                    return true;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // Result must be positive
                if( tmp <= (std::uint32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int32_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = (std::int32_t)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
        }

        return false;
#endif
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( std::int32_t a, const std::int64_t& b, std::int32_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
#if SAFEINT_USE_INTRINSICS || SAFEINT_HAS_INT128
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;

        if( MultiplyInt64( a, b, &tmp ) )
        {
            if( tmp > safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int32_t>() ||
                tmp < safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int32_t>() )
            {
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
            }

            *pRet = (std::int32_t)tmp;
            return;
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#else
        bool aNegative = false;
        bool bNegative = false;

        std::uint32_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t b2 = b;

        if( a < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a = (std::int32_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int32_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int32_t >::method >::Abs(a);
        }

        if( b < 0 )
        {
            bNegative = true;
            b2 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(b2);
        }

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::uint64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( (std::uint32_t)a, (std::uint64_t)b2, &tmp );

        // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
        if( aNegative ^ bNegative )
        {
            // Result must be negative
            if( tmp <= (std::uint32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int32_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int32_t >::Value( tmp );
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // Result must be positive
            if( tmp <= (std::uint32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int32_t>() )
            {
                *pRet = (std::int32_t)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
#endif
    }
};

template<> class LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::uint64_t >
{
public:
    // Leave this one as-is - will call unsigned intrinsic internally
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool RegMultiply( const std::int64_t& a, const std::uint64_t& b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        bool aNegative = false;

        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t a1 = a;

        if( a1 < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(a1);
        }

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( (std::uint64_t)a1, (std::uint64_t)b, &tmp ) )
        {
            // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
            if( aNegative )
            {
                // Result must be negative
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int64_t >::Value( tmp );
                    return true;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // Result must be positive
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void RegMultiplyThrow( const std::int64_t& a, const std::uint64_t& b, std::int64_t* pRet ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        bool aNegative = false;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        std::int64_t a1 = a;

        if( a1 < 0 )
        {
            aNegative = true;
            a1 = (std::int64_t)AbsValueHelper< std::int64_t, GetAbsMethod< std::int64_t >::method >::Abs(a1);
        }

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( (std::uint64_t)a1, (std::uint64_t)b, &tmp ) )
        {
            // The unsigned multiplication didn't overflow
            if( aNegative )
            {
                // Result must be negative
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = SignedNegation< std::int64_t >::Value( tmp );
                    return;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // Result must be positive
                if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<std::int64_t>() )
                {
                    *pRet = (std::int64_t)tmp;
                    return;
                }
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

// In all of the following functions where LargeIntRegMultiply methods are called,
// we need to properly transition types. The methods need std::int64_t, std::int32_t, etc.
// but the variables being passed to us could be long long, long int, or long, depending on
// the compiler. Microsoft compiler knows that long long is the same type as std::int64_t, but gcc doesn't

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_Uint64Uint64 >
{
public:
    // T, U are std::uint64_t
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "T, U must be Uint64" );
        std::uint64_t t1 = t;
        std::uint64_t u1 = u;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        bool f = LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( t1, u1, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
        return f;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void MultiplyThrow(const std::uint64_t& t, const std::uint64_t& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "T, U must be Uint64");
        std::uint64_t t1 = t;
        std::uint64_t u1 = u;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( t1, u1, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_Uint64Uint >
{
public:
    // T is std::uint64_t
    // U is any unsigned int 32-bit or less
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isUint64, "T must be Uint64" );
        std::uint64_t t1 = t;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        bool f = LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >::RegMultiply( t1, (std::uint32_t)u, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
        return f;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void MultiplyThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isUint64, "T must be Uint64");
        std::uint64_t t1 = t;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::uint32_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( t1, (std::uint32_t)u, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
    }
};

// converse of the previous function
template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_UintUint64 >
{
public:
    // T is any unsigned int up to 32-bit
    // U is std::uint64_t
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Multiply(const T& t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "U must be Uint64");
        std::uint64_t u1 = u;
        std::uint32_t tmp = 0;

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( t, u1, &tmp ) &&
            SafeCastHelper< T, std::uint32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::uint32_t >::method >::Cast(tmp, ret) )
        {
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void MultiplyThrow(const T& t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "U must be Uint64");
        std::uint64_t u1 = u;
        std::uint32_t tmp = 0;

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::uint64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( t, u1, &tmp );
        SafeCastHelper< T, std::uint32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::uint32_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >(tmp, ret);
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_Uint64Int >
{
public:
    // T is std::uint64_t
    // U is any signed int, up to 64-bit
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool Multiply(const T& t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isUint64, "T must be Uint64");
        std::uint64_t t1 = t;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        bool f = LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::int32_t >::RegMultiply(t1, (std::int32_t)u, &tmp);
        ret = tmp;
        return f;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void MultiplyThrow(const T& t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isUint64, "T must be Uint64");
        std::uint64_t t1 = t;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::int32_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >(t1, (std::int32_t)u, &tmp);
        ret = tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_Uint64Int64 >
{
public:
    // T is std::uint64_t
    // U is std::int64_t
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool Multiply(const T& t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isInt64, "T must be Uint64, U Int64" );
        std::uint64_t t1 = t;
        std::int64_t          u1 = u;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        bool f = LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::int64_t >::RegMultiply(t1, u1, &tmp);
        ret = tmp;
        return f;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void MultiplyThrow(const T& t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isInt64, "T must be Uint64, U Int64");
        std::uint64_t t1 = t;
        std::int64_t          u1 = u;
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint64_t, std::int64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >(t1, u1, &tmp);
        ret = tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_UintInt64 >
{
public:
    // T is unsigned up to 32-bit
    // U is std::int64_t
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Multiply(const T& t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isInt64, "U must be Int64");
        std::int64_t          u1 = u;
        std::uint32_t tmp = 0;

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::int64_t >::RegMultiply( (std::uint32_t)t, u1, &tmp ) &&
            SafeCastHelper< T, std::uint32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::uint32_t >::method >::Cast(tmp, ret) )
        {
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void MultiplyThrow(const T& t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isInt64, "U must be Int64");
        std::int64_t          u1 = u;
        std::uint32_t tmp = 0;

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::uint32_t, std::int64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( (std::uint32_t)t, u1, &tmp );
        SafeCastHelper< T, std::uint32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::uint32_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >(tmp, ret);
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_Int64Uint >
{
public:
    // T is std::int64_t
    // U is unsigned up to 32-bit
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isInt64, "T must be Int64");
        std::int64_t t1 = t;
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;
        bool f = LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::uint32_t >::RegMultiply( t1, (std::uint32_t)u, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
        return f;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void MultiplyThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isInt64, "T must be Int64");
        std::int64_t          t1 = t;
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::uint32_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( t1, (std::uint32_t)u, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_Int64Int64 >
{
public:
    // T, U are std::int64_t
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isInt64, "T, U must be Int64" );
        std::int64_t  t1 = t;
        std::int64_t u1 = u;
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;
        bool f = LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::int64_t >::RegMultiply( t1, u1, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
        return f;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void MultiplyThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isInt64, "T, U must be Int64");
        std::int64_t t1 = t;
        std::int64_t u1 = u;
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::int64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( t1, u1, &tmp);
        ret = tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_Int64Int >
{
public:
    // T is std::int64_t
    // U is signed up to 32-bit
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool Multiply( const T& t, U u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isInt64, "T must be Int64");
        std::int64_t t1 = t;
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;
        bool f = LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::int32_t >::RegMultiply( t1, (std::int32_t)u, &tmp);
        ret = tmp;
        return f;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void MultiplyThrow( const std::int64_t& t, U u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isInt64, "T must be Int64");
        std::int64_t t1 = t;
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::int32_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >(t1, (std::int32_t)u, &tmp);
        ret = tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_IntUint64 >
{
public:
    // T is signed up to 32-bit
    // U is std::uint64_t
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Multiply(T t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "U must be Uint64");
        std::uint64_t u1 = u;
        std::int32_t tmp = 0;

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int32_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( (std::int32_t)t, u1, &tmp ) &&
            SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::Cast( tmp, ret ) )
        {
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void MultiplyThrow(T t, const std::uint64_t& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "U must be Uint64");
        std::uint64_t u1 = u;
        std::int32_t tmp = 0;

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int32_t, std::uint64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( (std::int32_t)t, u1, &tmp );
        SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( tmp, ret );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_Int64Uint64>
{
public:
    // T is std::int64_t
    // U is std::uint64_t
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static bool Multiply( const T& t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "T must be Int64, U Uint64" );
        std::int64_t t1 = t;
        std::uint64_t u1 = u;
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;
        bool f = LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::uint64_t >::RegMultiply( t1, u1, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
        return f;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY static void MultiplyThrow( const std::int64_t& t, const std::uint64_t& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<T>::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "T must be Int64, U Uint64");
        std::int64_t t1 = t;
        std::uint64_t u1 = u;
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;
        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int64_t, std::uint64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( t1, u1, &tmp );
        ret = tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationState_IntInt64>
{
public:
    // T is signed, up to 32-bit
    // U is std::int64_t
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Multiply( T t, const U& u, T& ret ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isInt64, "U must be Int64" );
        std::int64_t u1 = u;
        std::int32_t tmp = 0;

        if( LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int32_t, std::int64_t >::RegMultiply( (std::int32_t)t, u1, &tmp ) &&
            SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::Cast( tmp, ret ) )
        {
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void MultiplyThrow(T t, const U& u, T& ret) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isInt64, "U must be Int64");
        std::int64_t u1 = u;
        std::int32_t tmp = 0;

        LargeIntRegMultiply< std::int32_t, std::int64_t >::template RegMultiplyThrow< E >( (std::int32_t)t, u1, &tmp );
        SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( tmp, ret );
    }
};

enum DivisionState
{
    DivisionState_OK,
    DivisionState_UnsignedSigned,
    DivisionState_SignedUnsigned32,
    DivisionState_SignedUnsigned64,
    DivisionState_SignedUnsigned,
    DivisionState_SignedSigned
};

template < typename T, typename U > class DivisionMethod
{
public:
    enum
    {
        method = (safeint_internal::type_compare< T, U >::isBothUnsigned                     ? DivisionState_OK :
                 (!std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed) ? DivisionState_UnsignedSigned :
                 (std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed &&
                    safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint32 &&
                    safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit)                           ? DivisionState_SignedUnsigned32 :
                 (std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint64)  ? DivisionState_SignedUnsigned64 :
                 (std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed && !std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed) ? DivisionState_SignedUnsigned :
                                                                           DivisionState_SignedSigned)
    };
};

template < typename T, typename U, int state > class DivisionHelper;

template < typename T, typename U > class DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionState_OK >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Divide( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( u == 0 )
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        result = (T)( t/u );
        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void DivideThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( u == 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        result = (T)( t/u );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionState_UnsignedSigned>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Divide( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {

        if( u == 0 )
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        if( u > 0 )
        {
            result = (T)( t/u );
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        // it is always an error to try and divide an unsigned number by a negative signed number
        // unless u is bigger than t
        if( AbsValueHelper< U, GetAbsMethod< U >::method >::Abs( u ) > t )
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        return SafeIntArithmeticOverflow;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void DivideThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {

        if( u == 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        if( u > 0 )
        {
            result = (T)( t/u );
            return;
        }

        // it is always an error to try and divide an unsigned number by a negative signed number
        // unless u is bigger than t
        if( AbsValueHelper< U, GetAbsMethod< U >::method >::Abs( u ) > t )
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionState_SignedUnsigned32 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Divide( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( u == 0 )
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        // Test for t > 0
        // If t < 0, must explicitly upcast, or implicit upcast to ulong will cause errors
        // As it turns out, 32-bit division is about twice as fast, which justifies the extra conditional

        if( t > 0 )
            result = (T)( t/u );
        else
            result = (T)( (std::int64_t)t/(std::int64_t)u );

        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void DivideThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( u == 0 )
        {
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();
        }

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        // Test for t > 0
        // If t < 0, must explicitly upcast, or implicit upcast to ulong will cause errors
        // As it turns out, 32-bit division is about twice as fast, which justifies the extra conditional

        if( t > 0 )
            result = (T)( t/u );
        else
            result = (T)( (std::int64_t)t/(std::int64_t)u );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, bool > class div_signed_uint64;
template < typename T, typename U> class div_signed_uint64 <T, U, true> // Value of u fits into an int32
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T divide(T t, U u) { return (T)((std::int32_t)t / (std::int32_t)u); }
};

template < typename T, typename U> class div_signed_uint64 <T, U, false>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T divide(T t, U u) { return (T)((std::int64_t)t / (std::int64_t)u); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionState_SignedUnsigned64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Divide( const T& t, const std::uint64_t& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "U must be Uint64");

        if( u == 0 )
        {
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;
        }

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        if( u <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = div_signed_uint64 < T, U, sizeof(T) < sizeof(std::int64_t) > ::divide(t, u);
        }
        else // Corner case
        if( t == safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() && u == (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            // Min int divided by it's own magnitude is -1
            result = -1;
        }
        else
        {
            result = 0;
        }
        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void DivideThrow( const T& t, const std::uint64_t& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits<U>::isUint64, "U must be Uint64");

        if( u == 0 )
        {
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();
        }

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        if( u <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = div_signed_uint64 < T, U, sizeof(T) < sizeof(std::int64_t) > ::divide(t, u);
        }
        else // Corner case
        if( t == safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() && u == (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            // Min int divided by it's own magnitude is -1
            result = -1;
        }
        else
        {
            result = 0;
        }
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionState_SignedUnsigned>
{
public:
    // T is any signed, U is unsigned and smaller than 32-bit
    // In this case, standard operator casting is correct
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Divide( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( u == 0 )
        {
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;
        }

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        result = (T)( t/u );
        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void DivideThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( u == 0 )
        {
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();
        }

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        result = (T)( t/u );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionState_SignedSigned>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static SafeIntError Divide( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( u == 0 )
        {
            return SafeIntDivideByZero;
        }

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return SafeIntNoError;
        }

        // Must test for corner case
        if( t == safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() && u == (U)-1 )
            return SafeIntArithmeticOverflow;

        result = (T)( t/u );
        return SafeIntNoError;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void DivideThrow( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if(u == 0)
        {
            E::SafeIntOnDivZero();
        }

        if( t == 0 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return;
        }

        // Must test for corner case
        if( t == safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() && u == (U)-1 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        result = (T)( t/u );
    }
};

enum AdditionState
{
    AdditionState_CastIntCheckMax,
    AdditionState_CastUintCheckOverflow,
    AdditionState_CastUintCheckOverflowMax,
    AdditionState_CastUint64CheckOverflow,
    AdditionState_CastUint64CheckOverflowMax,
    AdditionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax,
    AdditionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax,
    AdditionState_CastInt64CheckMax,
    AdditionState_CastUint64CheckSafeIntMinMax,
    AdditionState_CastUint64CheckSafeIntMinMax2,
    AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflow,
    AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflowSafeIntMinMax,
    AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflowMax,
    AdditionState_ManualCheckInt64Uint64,
    AdditionState_ManualCheck,
    AdditionState_Error
};

template< typename T, typename U >
class AdditionMethod
{
public:
    enum
    {
                 //unsigned-unsigned
        method = (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_UintLT32  ? AdditionState_CastIntCheckMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint32_UintLT64)   ? AdditionState_CastUintCheckOverflow :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_Uint32)   ? AdditionState_CastUintCheckOverflowMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Uint)       ? AdditionState_CastUint64CheckOverflow :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT64_Uint64)   ? AdditionState_CastUint64CheckOverflowMax :
                 //unsigned-signed
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_IntLT32)  ? AdditionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint32_IntLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_Int32)    ? AdditionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Int ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Int64)      ? AdditionState_CastUint64CheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT64_Int64)    ? AdditionState_CastUint64CheckSafeIntMinMax2 :
                 //signed-signed
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_IntLT32)   ? AdditionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int32_IntLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_Int32)     ? AdditionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Int ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Int64)       ? AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflow :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT64_Int64)     ? AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflowSafeIntMinMax :
                 //signed-unsigned
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_UintLT32)  ? AdditionState_CastIntCheckMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int32_UintLT32 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT64_Uint32)    ? AdditionState_CastInt64CheckMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_UintLT64)    ? AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflowMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Uint64)      ? AdditionState_ManualCheckInt64Uint64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int_Uint64)        ? AdditionState_ManualCheck :
                  AdditionState_Error)
    };
};

template < typename T, typename U, int method > class AdditionHelper;

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastIntCheckMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //16-bit or less unsigned addition
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs + rhs;

        if( tmp <= (std::int32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        //16-bit or less unsigned addition
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs + rhs;

        if( tmp <= (std::int32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastUintCheckOverflow >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // 32-bit or less - both are unsigned
        std::uint32_t tmp = (std::uint32_t)lhs + (std::uint32_t)rhs;

        //we added didn't get smaller
        if( tmp >= lhs )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }
        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // 32-bit or less - both are unsigned
        std::uint32_t tmp = (std::uint32_t)lhs + (std::uint32_t)rhs;

        //we added didn't get smaller
        if( tmp >= lhs )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastUintCheckOverflowMax>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // 32-bit or less - both are unsigned
        std::uint32_t tmp = (std::uint32_t)lhs + (std::uint32_t)rhs;

        // We added and it didn't get smaller or exceed maxInt
        if( tmp >= lhs && tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }
        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        //32-bit or less - both are unsigned
        std::uint32_t tmp = (std::uint32_t)lhs + (std::uint32_t)rhs;

        // We added and it didn't get smaller or exceed maxInt
        if( tmp >= lhs && tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastUint64CheckOverflow>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs std::uint64_t, rhs unsigned
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        // We added and it didn't get smaller
        if(tmp >= lhs)
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs std::uint64_t, rhs unsigned
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        // We added and it didn't get smaller
        if(tmp >= lhs)
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastUint64CheckOverflowMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //lhs std::uint64_t, rhs unsigned
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        // We added and it didn't get smaller
        if( tmp >= lhs && tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        //lhs std::uint64_t, rhs unsigned
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        // We added and it didn't get smaller
        if( tmp >= lhs && tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // 16-bit or less - one or both are signed
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs + rhs;

        if( tmp <= (std::int32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() && tmp >= (std::int32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // 16-bit or less - one or both are signed
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs + rhs;

        if( tmp <= (std::int32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() && tmp >= (std::int32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // 32-bit or less - one or both are signed
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs + (std::int64_t)rhs;

        if( tmp <= (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() && tmp >= (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // 32-bit or less - one or both are signed
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs + (std::int64_t)rhs;

        if( tmp <= (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() && tmp >= (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastInt64CheckMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // 32-bit or less - lhs signed, rhs unsigned
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs + (std::int64_t)rhs;

        if( tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // 32-bit or less - lhs signed, rhs unsigned
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs + (std::int64_t)rhs;

        if( tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastUint64CheckSafeIntMinMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is std::uint64_t, rhs signed
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

        if( rhs < 0 )
        {
            // So we're effectively subtracting
            tmp = AbsValueHelper< U, GetAbsMethod< U >::method >::Abs( rhs );

            if( tmp <= lhs )
            {
                result = lhs - tmp;
                return true;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // now we know that rhs can be safely cast into an std::uint64_t
            tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

            // We added and it did not become smaller
            if( tmp >= lhs )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return true;
            }
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is std::uint64_t, rhs signed
        std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

        if( rhs < 0 )
        {
            // So we're effectively subtracting
            tmp = AbsValueHelper< U, GetAbsMethod< U >::method >::Abs( rhs );

            if( tmp <= lhs )
            {
                result = lhs - tmp;
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // now we know that rhs can be safely cast into an std::uint64_t
            tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

            // We added and it did not become smaller
            if( tmp >= lhs )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastUint64CheckSafeIntMinMax2>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is unsigned and < 64-bit, rhs std::int64_t
        if( rhs < 0 )
        {
            if( lhs >= ~(std::uint64_t)( rhs ) + 1 )//negation is safe, since rhs is 64-bit
            {
                result = (T)( lhs + rhs );
                return true;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // now we know that rhs can be safely cast into an std::uint64_t
            std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

            // special case - rhs cannot be larger than 0x7fffffffffffffff, lhs cannot be larger than 0xffffffff
            // it is not possible for the operation above to overflow, so just check max
            if( tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return true;
            }
        }
        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is unsigned and < 64-bit, rhs std::int64_t
        if( rhs < 0 )
        {
            if( lhs >= ~(std::uint64_t)( rhs ) + 1) //negation is safe, since rhs is 64-bit
            {
                result = (T)( lhs + rhs );
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // now we know that rhs can be safely cast into an std::uint64_t
            std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

            // special case - rhs cannot be larger than 0x7fffffffffffffff, lhs cannot be larger than 0xffffffff
            // it is not possible for the operation above to overflow, so just check max
            if( tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflow>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is std::int64_t, rhs signed
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        if( lhs >= 0 )
        {
            // mixed sign cannot overflow
            if( rhs >= 0 && tmp < lhs )
                return false;
        }
        else
        {
            // lhs negative
            if( rhs < 0 && tmp > lhs )
                return false;
        }

        result = (T)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is std::int64_t, rhs signed
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        if( lhs >= 0 )
        {
            // mixed sign cannot overflow
            if( rhs >= 0 && tmp < lhs )
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
        }
        else
        {
            // lhs negative
            if( rhs < 0 && tmp > lhs )
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
        }

        result = (T)tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflowSafeIntMinMax>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //rhs is std::int64_t, lhs signed
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;

        if( AdditionHelper< std::int64_t, std::int64_t, AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflow >::Addition( (std::int64_t)lhs, (std::int64_t)rhs, tmp ) &&
            tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() &&
            tmp >= safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        //rhs is std::int64_t, lhs signed
        std::int64_t tmp = 0;

        AdditionHelper< std::int64_t, std::int64_t, AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflow >::AdditionThrow< E >( (std::int64_t)lhs, (std::int64_t)rhs, tmp );

        if( tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() &&
            tmp >= safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_CastInt64CheckOverflowMax>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //lhs is std::int64_t, rhs unsigned < 64-bit
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp >= lhs )
        {
            result = (T)(std::int64_t)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is std::int64_t, rhs unsigned < 64-bit
        // Some compilers get optimization-happy, let's thwart them

        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp >= lhs )
        {
            result = (T)(std::int64_t)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_ManualCheckInt64Uint64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const std::int64_t& lhs, const std::uint64_t& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint64, "T must be Int64, U Uint64" );
        // rhs is std::uint64_t, lhs std::int64_t
        // cast everything to unsigned, perform addition, then
        // cast back for check - this is done to stop optimizers from removing the code
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp >= lhs )
        {
            result = (std::int64_t)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        result = 0;
        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const std::int64_t& lhs, const std::uint64_t& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint64, "T must be Int64, U Uint64");
        // rhs is std::uint64_t, lhs std::int64_t
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp >= lhs )
        {
            result = (std::int64_t)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class AdditionHelper < T, U, AdditionState_ManualCheck>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Addition( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // rhs is std::uint64_t, lhs signed, 32-bit or less
        if( (std::uint32_t)( rhs >> 32 ) == 0 )
        {
            // Now it just happens to work out that the standard behavior does what we want
            // Adding explicit casts to show exactly what's happening here
            // Note - this is tweaked to keep optimizers from tossing out the code.
            std::uint32_t tmp = (std::uint32_t)rhs + (std::uint32_t)lhs;

            if( (std::int32_t)tmp >= lhs && SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::Cast( (std::int32_t)tmp, result ) )
                return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void AdditionThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // rhs is std::uint64_t, lhs signed, 32-bit or less

        if( (std::uint32_t)( rhs >> 32 ) == 0 )
        {
            // Now it just happens to work out that the standard behavior does what we want
            // Adding explicit casts to show exactly what's happening here
            std::uint32_t tmp = (std::uint32_t)rhs + (std::uint32_t)lhs;

            if( (std::int32_t)tmp >= lhs )
            {
                SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( (std::int32_t)tmp, result );
                return;
            }
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

enum SubtractionState
{
    SubtractionState_BothUnsigned,
    SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax,
    SubtractionState_CastIntCheckMin,
    SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax,
    SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckMin,
    SubtractionState_Uint64Int,
    SubtractionState_UintInt64,
    SubtractionState_Int64Int,
    SubtractionState_IntInt64,
    SubtractionState_Int64Uint,
    SubtractionState_IntUint64,
    SubtractionState_Int64Uint64,
    // states for SubtractionMethod2
    SubtractionState_BothUnsigned2,
    SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax2,
    SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax2,
    SubtractionState_Uint64Int2,
    SubtractionState_UintInt642,
    SubtractionState_Int64Int2,
    SubtractionState_IntInt642,
    SubtractionState_Int64Uint2,
    SubtractionState_IntUint642,
    SubtractionState_Int64Uint642,
    SubtractionState_Error
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionMethod
{
public:
    enum
    {
                 // unsigned-unsigned
        method = ((IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_UintLT32 ||
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint32_UintLT64)   ||
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_Uint32)   ||
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Uint)       ||
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT64_Uint64))      ? SubtractionState_BothUnsigned :
                 // unsigned-signed
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_IntLT32)      ? SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint32_IntLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_Int32)        ? SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Int ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Int64)          ? SubtractionState_Uint64Int :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT64_Int64)        ? SubtractionState_UintInt64 :
                 // signed-signed
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_IntLT32)       ? SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int32_IntLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_Int32)         ? SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Int ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Int64)           ? SubtractionState_Int64Int :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT64_Int64)         ? SubtractionState_IntInt64 :
                 // signed-unsigned
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_UintLT32)      ? SubtractionState_CastIntCheckMin :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int32_UintLT32 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT64_Uint32)        ? SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckMin :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_UintLT64)        ? SubtractionState_Int64Uint :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int_Uint64)            ? SubtractionState_IntUint64 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Uint64)          ? SubtractionState_Int64Uint64 :
                  SubtractionState_Error)
    };
};

// this is for the case of U - SafeInt< T, E >
template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionMethod2
{
public:
    enum
    {
                 // unsigned-unsigned
        method = ((IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_UintLT32 ||
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint32_UintLT64)   ||
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_Uint32)   ||
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Uint)       ||
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT64_Uint64))     ? SubtractionState_BothUnsigned2 :
                 // unsigned-signed
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_IntLT32)     ? SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint32_IntLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT32_Int32)       ? SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Int ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Uint64_Int64)         ? SubtractionState_Uint64Int2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_UintLT64_Int64)       ? SubtractionState_UintInt642 :
                 // signed-signed
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_IntLT32)      ? SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int32_IntLT64 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_Int32)        ? SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Int ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Int64)          ? SubtractionState_Int64Int2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT64_Int64)        ? SubtractionState_IntInt642 :
                 // signed-unsigned
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT32_UintLT32)     ? SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int32_UintLT32 ||
                  IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_IntLT64_Uint32)       ? SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_UintLT64)       ? SubtractionState_Int64Uint2 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int_Uint64)           ? SubtractionState_IntUint642 :
                 (IntRegion< T,U >::IntZone_Int64_Uint64)         ? SubtractionState_Int64Uint642 :
                                                                    SubtractionState_Error)
    };
};

template < typename T, typename U, int method > class SubtractionHelper;

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_BothUnsigned >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // both are unsigned - easy case
        if( rhs <= lhs )
        {
            result = (T)( lhs - rhs );
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // both are unsigned - easy case
        if( rhs <= lhs )
        {
            result = (T)( lhs - rhs );
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_BothUnsigned2 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, U& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // both are unsigned - easy case
        // Except we do have to check for overflow - lhs could be larger than result can hold
        if( rhs <= lhs )
        {
            T tmp = (T)(lhs - rhs);
            return SafeCastHelper< U, T, GetCastMethod<U, T>::method>::Cast( tmp, result);
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, U& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // both are unsigned - easy case
        if( rhs <= lhs )
        {
            T tmp = (T)(lhs - rhs);
            SafeCastHelper< U, T, GetCastMethod<U, T>::method >::template CastThrow<E>( tmp, result);
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // both values are 16-bit or less
        // rhs is signed, so could end up increasing or decreasing
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs - rhs;

        if( SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::Cast( tmp, result ) )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // both values are 16-bit or less
        // rhs is signed, so could end up increasing or decreasing
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs - rhs;

        SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( tmp, result );
    }
};

template <typename U, typename T> class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_CastIntCheckSafeIntMinMax2 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // both values are 16-bit or less
        // rhs is signed, so could end up increasing or decreasing
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs - rhs;

        return SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::Cast( tmp, result );
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // both values are 16-bit or less
        // rhs is signed, so could end up increasing or decreasing
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs - rhs;

        SafeCastHelper< T, std::int32_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int32_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( tmp, result );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_CastIntCheckMin >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // both values are 16-bit or less
        // rhs is unsigned - check only minimum
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs - rhs;

        if( tmp >= (std::int32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // both values are 16-bit or less
        // rhs is unsigned - check only minimum
        std::int32_t tmp = lhs - rhs;

        if( tmp >= (std::int32_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // both values are 32-bit or less
        // rhs is signed, so could end up increasing or decreasing
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs - (std::int64_t)rhs;

        return SafeCastHelper< T, std::int64_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int64_t >::method >::Cast( tmp, result );
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // both values are 32-bit or less
        // rhs is signed, so could end up increasing or decreasing
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs - (std::int64_t)rhs;

        SafeCastHelper< T, std::int64_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int64_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( tmp, result );
    }
};

template <typename U, typename T> class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckSafeIntMinMax2 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // both values are 32-bit or less
        // rhs is signed, so could end up increasing or decreasing
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs - (std::int64_t)rhs;

        return SafeCastHelper< T, std::int64_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int64_t >::method >::Cast( tmp, result );
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // both values are 32-bit or less
        // rhs is signed, so could end up increasing or decreasing
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs - (std::int64_t)rhs;

        SafeCastHelper< T, std::int64_t, GetCastMethod< T, std::int64_t >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( tmp, result );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_CastInt64CheckMin >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // both values are 32-bit or less
        // rhs is unsigned - check only minimum
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs - (std::int64_t)rhs;

        if( tmp >= (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // both values are 32-bit or less
        // rhs is unsigned - check only minimum
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)lhs - (std::int64_t)rhs;

        if( tmp >= (std::int64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_Uint64Int >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is an std::uint64_t, rhs signed
        // must first see if rhs is positive or negative
        if( rhs >= 0 )
        {
            if( (std::uint64_t)rhs <= lhs )
            {
                result = (T)( lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs );
                return true;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            T tmp = lhs;
            // we're now effectively adding
            result = lhs + AbsValueHelper< U, GetAbsMethod< U >::method >::Abs( rhs );

            if(result >= tmp)
                return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is an std::uint64_t, rhs signed
        // must first see if rhs is positive or negative
        if( rhs >= 0 )
        {
            if( (std::uint64_t)rhs <= lhs )
            {
                result = (T)( lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs );
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            T tmp = lhs;
            // we're now effectively adding
            result = lhs + AbsValueHelper< U, GetAbsMethod< U >::method >::Abs( rhs );

            if(result >= tmp)
                return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename U, typename T > class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_Uint64Int2 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // U is std::uint64_t, T is signed
        if( rhs < 0 )
        {
            // treat this as addition
            std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

            tmp = lhs + (std::uint64_t)AbsValueHelper< T, GetAbsMethod< T >::method >::Abs( rhs );

            // must check for addition overflow and max
            if( tmp >= lhs && tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return true;
            }
        }
        else if( (std::uint64_t)rhs > lhs ) // now both are positive, so comparison always works
        {
            // result is negative
            // implies that lhs must fit into T, and result cannot overflow
            // Also allows us to drop to 32-bit math, which is faster on a 32-bit system
            result = (T)lhs - (T)rhs;
            return true;
        }
        else
        {
            // result is positive
            std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs;

            if( tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return true;
            }
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // U is std::uint64_t, T is signed
        if( rhs < 0 )
        {
            // treat this as addition
            std::uint64_t tmp = 0;

            tmp = lhs + (std::uint64_t)AbsValueHelper< T, GetAbsMethod< T >::method >::Abs( rhs );

            // must check for addition overflow and max
            if( tmp >= lhs && tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }
        else if( (std::uint64_t)rhs > lhs ) // now both are positive, so comparison always works
        {
            // result is negative
            // implies that lhs must fit into T, and result cannot overflow
            // Also allows us to drop to 32-bit math, which is faster on a 32-bit system
            result = (T)lhs - (T)rhs;
            return;
        }
        else
        {
            // result is positive
            std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs;

            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_UintInt64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is an unsigned int32 or smaller, rhs std::int64_t
        // must first see if rhs is positive or negative
        if( rhs >= 0 )
        {
            if( (std::uint64_t)rhs <= lhs )
            {
                result = (T)( lhs - (T)rhs );
                return true;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // we're now effectively adding
            // since lhs is 32-bit, and rhs cannot exceed 2^63
            // this addition cannot overflow
            std::uint64_t tmp = lhs + ~(std::uint64_t)( rhs ) + 1; // negation safe

            // but we could exceed MaxInt
            if(tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>())
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return true;
            }
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is an unsigned int32 or smaller, rhs std::int64_t
        // must first see if rhs is positive or negative
        if( rhs >= 0 )
        {
            if( (std::uint64_t)rhs <= lhs )
            {
                result = (T)( lhs - (T)rhs );
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // we're now effectively adding
            // since lhs is 32-bit, and rhs cannot exceed 2^63
            // this addition cannot overflow
            std::uint64_t tmp = lhs + ~(std::uint64_t)( rhs ) + 1; // negation safe

            // but we could exceed MaxInt
            if(tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>())
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template <typename U, typename T> class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_UintInt642 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // U unsigned 32-bit or less, T std::int64_t
        if( rhs >= 0 )
        {
            // overflow not possible
            result = (T)( (std::int64_t)lhs - rhs );
            return true;
        }
        else
        {
            // we effectively have an addition
            // which cannot overflow internally
            std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)( -rhs );

            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return true;
            }
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // U unsigned 32-bit or less, T std::int64_t
        if( rhs >= 0 )
        {
            // overflow not possible
            result = (T)( (std::int64_t)lhs - rhs );
            return;
        }
        else
        {
            // we effectively have an addition
            // which cannot overflow internally
            std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs + (std::uint64_t)( -rhs );

            if( tmp <= (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
            {
                result = (T)tmp;
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_Int64Int >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is an std::int64_t, rhs signed (up to 64-bit)
        // we have essentially 4 cases:
        //
        // 1) lhs positive, rhs positive - overflow not possible
        // 2) lhs positive, rhs negative - equivalent to addition - result >= lhs or error
        // 3) lhs negative, rhs positive - check result <= lhs
        // 4) lhs negative, rhs negative - overflow not possible

        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        // Note - ideally, we can order these so that true conditionals
        // lead to success, which enables better pipelining
        // It isn't practical here
        if( ( lhs >= 0 && rhs < 0 && tmp < lhs ) || // condition 2
            ( rhs >= 0 && tmp > lhs ) )             // condition 3
        {
            return false;
        }

        result = (T)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is an std::int64_t, rhs signed (up to 64-bit)
        // we have essentially 4 cases:
        //
        // 1) lhs positive, rhs positive - overflow not possible
        // 2) lhs positive, rhs negative - equivalent to addition - result >= lhs or error
        // 3) lhs negative, rhs positive - check result <= lhs
        // 4) lhs negative, rhs negative - overflow not possible

        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        // Note - ideally, we can order these so that true conditionals
        // lead to success, which enables better pipelining
        // It isn't practical here
        if( ( lhs >= 0 && rhs < 0 && tmp < lhs ) || // condition 2
            ( rhs >= 0 && tmp > lhs ) )             // condition 3
        {
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
        }

        result = (T)tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, bool > class subtract_corner_case_max;

template < typename T, typename U> class subtract_corner_case_max < T, U, true>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool isOverflowPositive(const T& rhs, const U& lhs, std::int64_t tmp)
    {
        return (tmp > safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() || (rhs < 0 && tmp < lhs));
    }

    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool isOverflowNegative(const T& rhs, const U& lhs, std::int64_t tmp)
    {
         return (tmp < safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() || (rhs >= 0 && tmp > lhs));
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U> class subtract_corner_case_max < T, U, false>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool isOverflowPositive(const T& rhs, const U& lhs, std::int64_t tmp)
    {
        return (rhs < 0 && tmp < lhs);
    }

    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool isOverflowNegative(const T& rhs, const U& lhs, std::int64_t tmp)
    {
        return (rhs >= 0 && tmp > lhs);
    }
};

template < typename U, typename T > class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_Int64Int2 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs std::int64_t, rhs any signed int (including std::int64_t)
        // Perform the subtraction in unsigned to avoid signed-overflow UB
        // for inputs near the int64 boundaries (e.g. INT64_MAX - (-1)).
        // The post-check below then validates the wrapped result.
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        // we have essentially 4 cases:
        //
        // 1) lhs positive, rhs positive - overflow not possible in tmp
        // 2) lhs positive, rhs negative - equivalent to addition - result >= lhs or error
        // 3) lhs negative, rhs positive - check result <= lhs
        // 4) lhs negative, rhs negative - overflow not possible in tmp

        if( lhs >= 0 )
        {
            // if both positive, overflow to negative not possible
            // which is why we'll explicitly check maxInt, and not call SafeCast
            if(subtract_corner_case_max< T, U, safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit >::isOverflowPositive(rhs, lhs, tmp))
            {
                return false;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // lhs negative
            if(subtract_corner_case_max< T, U, safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit >::isOverflowNegative(rhs, lhs, tmp))
            {
                return false;
            }
        }

        result = (T)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs std::int64_t, rhs any signed int (including std::int64_t)
        // Perform the subtraction in unsigned to avoid signed-overflow UB
        // for inputs near the int64 boundaries (e.g. INT64_MAX - (-1)).
        // The post-check below then validates the wrapped result.
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        // we have essentially 4 cases:
        //
        // 1) lhs positive, rhs positive - overflow not possible in tmp
        // 2) lhs positive, rhs negative - equivalent to addition - result >= lhs or error
        // 3) lhs negative, rhs positive - check result <= lhs
        // 4) lhs negative, rhs negative - overflow not possible in tmp

        if( lhs >= 0 )
        {
            // if both positive, overflow to negative not possible
            // which is why we'll explicitly check maxInt, and not call SafeCast
            if (subtract_corner_case_max< T, U, safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit>::isOverflowPositive(rhs, lhs, tmp))
            {
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // lhs negative
            if (subtract_corner_case_max< T, U, safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isLT64Bit >::isOverflowNegative(rhs, lhs, tmp))
            {
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
            }
        }

        result = (T)tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_IntInt64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is a 32-bit int or less, rhs std::int64_t
        // we have essentially 4 cases:
        //
        // lhs positive, rhs positive - rhs could be larger than lhs can represent
        // lhs positive, rhs negative - additive case - check tmp >= lhs and tmp > max int
        // lhs negative, rhs positive - check tmp <= lhs and tmp < min int
        // lhs negative, rhs negative - addition cannot internally overflow, check against max

        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        if( lhs >= 0 )
        {
            // first case
            if( rhs >= 0 )
            {
                if( tmp >= safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
                {
                    result = (T)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // second case
                if( tmp >= lhs && tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
                {
                    result = (T)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // lhs < 0
            // third case
            if( rhs >= 0 )
            {
                if( tmp <= lhs && tmp >= safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
                {
                    result = (T)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // fourth case
                if( tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
                {
                    result = (T)tmp;
                    return true;
                }
            }
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is a 32-bit int or less, rhs std::int64_t
        // we have essentially 4 cases:
        //
        // lhs positive, rhs positive - rhs could be larger than lhs can represent
        // lhs positive, rhs negative - additive case - check tmp >= lhs and tmp > max int
        // lhs negative, rhs positive - check tmp <= lhs and tmp < min int
        // lhs negative, rhs negative - addition cannot internally overflow, check against max

        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        if( lhs >= 0 )
        {
            // first case
            if( rhs >= 0 )
            {
                if( tmp >= safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
                {
                    result = (T)tmp;
                    return;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // second case
                if( tmp >= lhs && tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
                {
                    result = (T)tmp;
                    return;
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // lhs < 0
            // third case
            if( rhs >= 0 )
            {
                if( tmp <= lhs && tmp >= safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
                {
                    result = (T)tmp;
                    return;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // fourth case
                if( tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
                {
                    result = (T)tmp;
                    return;
                }
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename U, typename T > class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_IntInt642 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is any signed int32 or smaller, rhs is int64
        // Perform the subtraction in unsigned to avoid signed-overflow UB
        // for inputs near the int64 boundaries (e.g. 1 - INT64_MIN).  The
        // post-check below then validates the wrapped result.
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        if( ( lhs >= 0 && rhs < 0 && tmp < lhs ) ||
            ( rhs > 0 && tmp > lhs ) )
        {
            return false;
            //else OK
        }

        result = (T)tmp;
        return true;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is any signed int32 or smaller, rhs is int64
        // Perform the subtraction in unsigned to avoid signed-overflow UB
        // for inputs near the int64 boundaries (e.g. 1 - INT64_MIN).  The
        // post-check below then validates the wrapped result.
        std::int64_t tmp = (std::int64_t)((std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs);

        if( ( lhs >= 0 && rhs < 0 && tmp < lhs ) ||
            ( rhs > 0 && tmp > lhs ) )
        {
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
            //else OK
        }

        result = (T)tmp;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_Int64Uint >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is a 64-bit int, rhs unsigned int32 or smaller
        // perform test as unsigned to prevent unwanted optimizations
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp <= lhs )
        {
            result = (T)(std::int64_t)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is a 64-bit int, rhs unsigned int32 or smaller
        // perform test as unsigned to prevent unwanted optimizations
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp <= lhs )
        {
            result = (T)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename U, typename T > class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_Int64Uint2 >
{
public:
    // lhs is std::int64_t, rhs is unsigned 32-bit or smaller
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // Do this as unsigned to prevent unwanted optimizations
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() && (std::int64_t)tmp >= safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)(std::int64_t)tmp;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // Do this as unsigned to prevent unwanted optimizations
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs - (std::uint64_t)rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp <= safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() && (std::int64_t)tmp >= safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            result = (T)(std::int64_t)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_IntUint64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // lhs is any signed int, rhs unsigned int64
        // check against available range

        // We need the absolute value of std::numeric_limits<T>::min()
        // This will give it to us without extraneous compiler warnings
        const std::uint64_t AbsMinIntT = (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() + 1;

        if( lhs < 0 )
        {
            if( rhs <= AbsMinIntT - AbsValueHelper< T, GetAbsMethod< T >::method >::Abs( lhs ) )
            {
                result = (T)( lhs - rhs );
                return true;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            if( rhs <= AbsMinIntT + (std::uint64_t)lhs )
            {
                result = (T)( lhs - rhs );
                return true;
            }
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const T& lhs, const U& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // lhs is any signed int, rhs unsigned int64
        // check against available range

        // We need the absolute value of std::numeric_limits<T>::min()
        // This will give it to us without extraneous compiler warnings
        SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 std::uint64_t AbsMinIntT = (std::uint64_t)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() + 1;

        if( lhs < 0 )
        {
            if( rhs <= AbsMinIntT - AbsValueHelper< T, GetAbsMethod< T >::method >::Abs( lhs ) )
            {
                result = (T)( lhs - rhs );
                return;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            if( rhs <= AbsMinIntT + (std::uint64_t)lhs )
            {
                result = (T)( lhs - rhs );
                return;
            }
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename U, typename T > class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_IntUint642 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // We run into upcasting problems on comparison - needs 2 checks
        if( lhs >= 0 && (T)lhs >= rhs )
        {
            result = (T)((U)lhs - (U)rhs);
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const U& lhs, const T& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // We run into upcasting problems on comparison - needs 2 checks
        if( lhs >= 0 && (T)lhs >= rhs )
        {
            result = (T)((U)lhs - (U)rhs);
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

};

template < typename T, typename U > class SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionState_Int64Uint64 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const std::int64_t& lhs, const std::uint64_t& rhs, std::int64_t& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint64, "T must be Int64, U Uint64");
        // if we subtract, and it gets larger, there's a problem
        // Perform test as unsigned to prevent unwanted optimizations
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs - rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp <= lhs )
        {
            result = (std::int64_t)tmp;
            return true;
        }
        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const std::int64_t& lhs, const std::uint64_t& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isInt64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isUint64, "T must be Int64, U Uint64");
        // if we subtract, and it gets larger, there's a problem
        // Perform test as unsigned to prevent unwanted optimizations
        std::uint64_t tmp = (std::uint64_t)lhs - rhs;

        if( (std::int64_t)tmp <= lhs )
        {
            result = (std::int64_t)tmp;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

};

template < typename U, typename T > class SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionState_Int64Uint642 >
{
public:
    // If lhs is negative, immediate problem - return must be positive, and subtracting only makes it
    // get smaller. If rhs > lhs, then it would also go negative, which is the other case
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Subtract( const std::int64_t& lhs, const std::uint64_t& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isInt64, "T must be Uint64, U Int64" );
        if( lhs >= 0 && (std::uint64_t)lhs >= rhs )
        {
            result = (std::uint64_t)lhs - rhs;
            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }

    template < typename E >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static void SubtractThrow( const std::int64_t& lhs, const std::uint64_t& rhs, T& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::isUint64 && safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isInt64, "T must be Uint64, U Int64");
        if( lhs >= 0 && (std::uint64_t)lhs >= rhs )
        {
            result = (std::uint64_t)lhs - rhs;
            return;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

};

enum BinaryState
{
    BinaryState_OK,
    BinaryState_Int8,
    BinaryState_Int16,
    BinaryState_Int32
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryMethod
{
public:
    enum
    {
        // If both operands are unsigned OR
        //    return type is smaller than rhs OR
        //    return type is larger and rhs is unsigned
        // Then binary operations won't produce unexpected results
        method = ( sizeof( T ) <= sizeof( U ) ||
                 safeint_internal::type_compare< T, U >::isBothUnsigned ||
                 !std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed )          ? BinaryState_OK :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isInt8               ? BinaryState_Int8 :
                 safeint_internal::int_traits< U >::isInt16              ? BinaryState_Int16
                                                      : BinaryState_Int32
    };
};

#ifdef SAFEINT_DISABLE_BINARY_ASSERT
#define BinaryAssert(x)
#else
#define BinaryAssert(x) SAFEINT_ASSERT(x)
#endif

template < typename T, typename U, int method > class BinaryAndHelper;

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryState_OK >
{
public:
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 static T And( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return (T)( lhs & rhs ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int8 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T And( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs & rhs ) == ( lhs & (std::uint8_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs & (std::uint8_t)rhs );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int16 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T And( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs & rhs ) == ( lhs & (std::uint16_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs & (std::uint16_t)rhs );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int32 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T And( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs & rhs ) == ( lhs & (std::uint32_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs & (std::uint32_t)rhs );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, int method > class BinaryOrHelper;

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryState_OK >
{
public:
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 static T Or( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return (T)( lhs | rhs ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int8 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T Or( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs | rhs ) == ( lhs | (std::uint8_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs | (std::uint8_t)rhs );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int16 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T Or( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs | rhs ) == ( lhs | (std::uint16_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs | (std::uint16_t)rhs );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int32 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T Or( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        //cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs | rhs ) == ( lhs | (std::uint32_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs | (std::uint32_t)rhs );
    }
};

template <typename T, typename U, int method > class BinaryXorHelper;

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryState_OK >
{
public:
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 static T Xor( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return (T)( lhs ^ rhs ); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int8 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T Xor( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs ^ rhs ) == ( lhs ^ (std::uint8_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs ^ (std::uint8_t)rhs );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int16 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T Xor( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs ^ rhs ) == ( lhs ^ (std::uint16_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs ^ (std::uint16_t)rhs );
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryState_Int32 >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T Xor( T lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // cast forces sign extension to be zeros
        BinaryAssert( ( lhs ^ rhs ) == ( lhs ^ (std::uint32_t)rhs ) );
        return (T)( lhs ^ (std::uint32_t)rhs );
    }
};

template < typename U, int signed > class bits_not_negative;

// Signed case
template < typename U > class bits_not_negative < U, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool value(U bits)
    {
        return bits >= 0;
    }
};

template < typename U > class bits_not_negative < U, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool value(U)
    {
        return true;
    }
};

// Tag-dispatched test for "is this value negative?" that does not write the
// `lhs < 0` comparison when T is unsigned.  Avoids the compile-time-constant-
// conditional warnings (e.g. MSVC C4127) that would otherwise fire on the
// dead unsigned branch of any caller that handles both signed and unsigned T
// through one template body.
template < typename T, int is_signed > class lhs_is_negative;

// Signed case
template < typename T > class lhs_is_negative < T, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool value(T lhs)
    {
        return lhs < 0;
    }
};

// Unsigned case
template < typename T > class lhs_is_negative < T, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool value(T)
    {
        return false;
    }
};

// Performs the alignment addition and mask in a way that avoids signed-
// overflow UB.  For signed T the addition (m_int + AlignValue) overflows
// when m_int is near max(T), which is undefined behavior; perform the
// addition in the unsigned counterpart of T so the wrap is well-defined,
// then cast back.  The post-check in the caller will detect the wrap by
// observing m_int <= 0.  For unsigned T no special handling is needed
// (wraparound is already well-defined), but the parallel specialization
// keeps the call-site warning-clean across both signednesses.
template < typename T, int is_signed > class align_addmask;

// Signed T
template < typename T > class align_addmask < T, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T value( T lhs, T align_value )
    {
        typedef typename std::make_unsigned< T >::type UT;
        return (T)( ( (UT)lhs + (UT)align_value ) & ~(UT)align_value );
    }
};

// Unsigned T
template < typename T > class align_addmask < T, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static T value( T lhs, T align_value )
    {
        return (T)( ( lhs + align_value ) & ~align_value );
    }
};

// Shift validation uses the enum-dispatch pattern used elsewhere in this file
// (see BinaryMethod / BinaryAndHelper, AdditionMethod / AdditionHelper, etc.):
// a compile-time enum value is computed from properties of T, and a helper
// class template is specialized on that enum to perform the validation.
//
// Three states cover the shift rules:
//
//   ShiftState_RightShift
//       Any T.  The lhs value does not affect well-definedness of >> on any
//       supported platform; only the bit count needs to be in [0, bitCount<T>).
//
//   ShiftState_LeftShiftUnsigned
//       Unsigned T.  Wraparound is well-defined; only the bit count matters,
//       same range as right shift.
//
//   ShiftState_LeftShiftSigned
//       Signed T.  Bit count must be in [0, bitCount<T> - 1), AND the lhs
//       value must not have any bits set that would shift into or past the
//       sign bit.  Shifting a negative signed value, or shifting a positive
//       value into the sign bit, is undefined behavior pre-C++20.
//
// The signed-left-shift value check uses an unsigned-cast trick to fold both
// failure modes (negative lhs, and positive lhs that would overflow into the
// sign bit) into one comparison: a negative lhs casts to a large unsigned
// value that exceeds the threshold, and a too-large positive lhs fails
// directly.

enum ShiftState
{
    ShiftState_RightShift,
    ShiftState_LeftShiftUnsigned,
    ShiftState_LeftShiftSigned
};

// IsLeftShift is a non-type bool: true selects a left-shift state based on
// signedness of T; false selects ShiftState_RightShift unconditionally.
// ShiftMethod exposes both a 3-valued enum (which documents the three rule
// sets) and a 2-valued bool (which drives ShiftHelper's specialization,
// since ShiftState_RightShift and ShiftState_LeftShiftUnsigned share an
// identical implementation -- only the signed-left-shift case differs).
template < typename T, bool IsLeftShift > class ShiftMethod
{
public:
    enum
    {
        method = !IsLeftShift                            ? ShiftState_RightShift :
                 std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed     ? ShiftState_LeftShiftSigned
                                                         : ShiftState_LeftShiftUnsigned,

        isSignedLeftShift = (method == (int)ShiftState_LeftShiftSigned)
    };
};

template < typename T, typename U, bool isSignedLeftShift > class ShiftHelper;

// Right shift, and unsigned left shift: only the bit count matters.
template < typename T, typename U > class ShiftHelper< T, U, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool ValidBitcount(T /*lhs*/, U bits) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if (bits_not_negative<U, std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed>::value(bits))
        {
            if (bits < (int)safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::bitCount)
            {
                return true;
            }
        }
        return false;
    }
};

// Signed left shift: tighter bit-count cap (bitCount - 1), plus an
// unsigned-cast value check that folds the negative-lhs and overflow-into-
// sign-bit cases into a single comparison.
template < typename T, typename U > class ShiftHelper< T, U, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool ValidBitcount(T lhs, U bits) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if (!bits_not_negative<U, std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed>::value(bits))
            return false;

        if (bits >= (int)safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::bitCount - 1)
            return false;

        typedef typename std::make_unsigned< T >::type UT;
        return (UT)lhs <= (UT)(safeint_internal::safeint_max< T >() >> bits);
    }
};

/*****************  External functions ****************************************/

// External functions that can be used where you only need to check one operation
// non-class helper function so that you can check for a cast's validity
// and handle errors how you like
template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeCast( const T From, U& To ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // std::numeric_limits is unspecialized for enum types; max() and min()
    // return 0 by default, which silently makes the range check in
    // SafeCastHelper trivially fail for any non-zero From value.  Reject
    // enum destinations at compile time.  If the caller actually wants this,
    // they can cast their enum variable to its underlying type, call
    // SafeCast, and assign the result back.
    static_assert(!std::is_enum<U>::value,
        "SafeCast destination type must not be an enum.  std::numeric_limits "
        "is unspecialized for enums and the range check would be incorrect.  "
        "Cast to the underlying type instead.");
    return SafeCastHelper< U, T, GetCastMethod< U, T >::method >::Cast( From, To );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return EqualityTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::IsEquals( t, u );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeNotEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !EqualityTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::IsEquals( t, u );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeGreaterThan( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( t, u );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeGreaterThanEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !GreaterThanTest< U, T, ValidComparison< U, T >::method >::GreaterThan( u, t );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeLessThan( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return GreaterThanTest< U, T, ValidComparison< U, T >::method >::GreaterThan( u, t );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeLessThanEquals( const T t, const U u ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( t, u );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeModulus( const T& t, const U& u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return ( ModulusHelper< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::Modulus( t, u, result ) == SafeIntNoError );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY inline bool SafeMultiply( T t, U u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationMethod< T, U >::method >::Multiply( t, u, result );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeDivide( T t, U u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return ( DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionMethod< T, U >::method >::Divide( t, u, result ) == SafeIntNoError );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeAdd( T t, U u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return AdditionHelper< T, U, AdditionMethod< T, U >::method >::Addition( t, u, result );
}

template < typename T, typename U >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeSubtract( T t, U u, T& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionMethod< T, U >::method >::Subtract( t, u, result );
}

template < typename T >
SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 inline bool SafeNegation(T t, T& result) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return NegationHelper< T, std::numeric_limits<T>::is_signed>::Negative(t, result);
}

/*****************  end external functions ************************************/

// Main SafeInt class
// Assumes exceptions can be thrown
template < typename T, typename E = SafeIntDefaultExceptionHandler > class SafeInt
{
public:
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeInt() SAFEINT_NOTHROW : m_int(0)
    {
        static_assert( safeint_internal::numeric_type< T >::isInt, "Integer type required" );
    }

    // Having a constructor for every type of int
    // avoids having the compiler evade our checks when doing implicit casts -
    // e.g., SafeInt<char> s = 0x7fffffff;
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeInt( const T& i ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW : m_int(i)
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::numeric_type< T >::isInt, "Integer type required");
        //always safe
    }

    // provide explicit boolean converter
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeInt( bool b ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW : m_int((T)(b ? 1 : 0))
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::numeric_type< T >::isInt, "Integer type required");
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt(const SafeInt< U, E >& u) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW : m_int(0)
    {
        static_assert(safeint_internal::numeric_type< T >::isInt, "Integer type required");
        m_int = (T)SafeInt< T, E >( (U)u );
    }

    // Default constructor and move constructor cannot be declared,
    // or gcc 8.x and 9.x breaks
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt( const U& i ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW : m_int(0)
    {
        // m_int must be initialized to something to work with constexpr, because if it throws, then m_int is unknown
        static_assert(safeint_internal::numeric_type< T >::isInt, "Integer type required");
        // SafeCast will throw exceptions if i won't fit in type T

        SafeCastHelper< T, U, GetCastMethod< T, U >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( i, m_int );
    }

    // The destructor is intentionally commented out - no destructor
    // vs. a do-nothing destructor makes a huge difference in
    // inlining characteristics. It wasn't doing anything anyway.
    // ~SafeInt(){};

    // now start overloading operators
    // assignment operator
    // constructors exist for all int types and will ensure safety

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator =( const U& rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // use constructor to test size
        // constructor is optimized to do minimal checking based
        // on whether T can contain U
        // note - do not change this
        m_int = SafeInt< T, E >( rhs );
        return *this;
    }

    // Note - move assignment and assignment operator from SafeInt<T> cannot be declared
    // or it will break under some gcc versions.
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator =( const SafeInt< U, E >& rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        SafeCastHelper< T, U, GetCastMethod< T, U >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( rhs.Ref(), m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    // Casting operators

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 operator bool() const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return !!m_int;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator char() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        char val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< char, T, GetCastMethod< char, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator signed char() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        signed char val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< signed char, T, GetCastMethod< signed char, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator unsigned char() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        unsigned char val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< unsigned char, T, GetCastMethod< unsigned char, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator short() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        short val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< short, T, GetCastMethod< short, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator unsigned short() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        unsigned short val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< unsigned short, T, GetCastMethod< unsigned short, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator int() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        int val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< int, T, GetCastMethod< int, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator unsigned int() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        unsigned int val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< unsigned int, T, GetCastMethod< unsigned int, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    // The compiler knows that int == std::int32_t
    // but not that long == std::int32_t, because on some systems, long == std::int64_t
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator long() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        long val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< long, T, GetCastMethod< long, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return  val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator unsigned long() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        unsigned long val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< unsigned long, T, GetCastMethod< unsigned long, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator long long() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        long long val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< long long, T, GetCastMethod< long long, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator unsigned long long() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        unsigned long long val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< unsigned long long, T, GetCastMethod< unsigned long long, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator wchar_t() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        wchar_t val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< wchar_t, T, GetCastMethod< wchar_t, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

#ifdef SIZE_T_CAST_NEEDED
    // We also need an explicit cast to size_t, or the compiler will complain
    // Apparently, only SOME compilers complain, and cl 14.00.50727.42 isn't one of them
    // Leave here in case we decide to backport this to an earlier compiler
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator size_t() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        size_t val = 0;
        SafeCastHelper< size_t, T, GetCastMethod< size_t, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }
#endif

    // Also provide a cast operator for floating point types
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator float() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        float val = 0.0;
        SafeCastHelper< float, T, GetCastMethod< float, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator double() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        double val = 0.0;
        SafeCastHelper< double, T, GetCastMethod< double, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 operator long double() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        long double val = static_cast<long double>(0.0);
        SafeCastHelper< long double, T, GetCastMethod< long double, T >::method >::template CastThrow< E >( m_int, val );
        return val;
    }

    // If you need a pointer to the data
    // this could be dangerous, but allows you to correctly pass
    // instances of this class to APIs that take a pointer to an integer
    // also see overloaded address-of operator below
    T* Ptr() SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return &m_int; }
    const T* Ptr() const SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return &m_int; }

    // The above are not modern naming conventions, introducing these
    // to move forward with:
    T* data_ptr() SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return &m_int; }
    const T* data_ptr() const SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return &m_int; }

    // This method is antiquated, and really only makes sense with
    // 64-bit values on a 32-bit processor. Leaving it for now, in case
    // someone is using it. A better approach is to just unbox it by casting
    // it back to the base type as static_cast<T>( my_safeint )
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 const T& Ref() const SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return m_int; }

#if !defined SAFEINT_DISABLE_ADDRESS_OPERATOR
    // Note - in the future, this is slated for deprecation

    // Or if SafeInt< T, E >::Ptr() is inconvenient, use the overload
    // operator &
    // This allows you to do unsafe things!
    // It is meant to allow you to more easily
    // pass a SafeInt into things like ReadFile
    T* operator &() SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return &m_int; }
    const T* operator &() const SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return &m_int; }
#endif

    // Unary operators
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator !() const SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return (!m_int) ? true : false; }

    // operator + (unary)
    // note - normally, the '+' and '-' operators will upcast to a signed int
    // for T < 32 bits. This class changes behavior to preserve type
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 const SafeInt< T, E >& operator +() const SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return *this; }

    //unary  -

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator -() const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // Note - unsigned still performs the bitwise manipulation
        // will warn at level 2 or higher if the value is 32-bit or larger
        return SafeInt<T, E>(NegationHelper<T, std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed>::template NegativeThrow<E>(m_int));
    }

    // prefix increment operator
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator ++() SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( m_int != safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            ++m_int;
            return *this;
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    // prefix decrement operator
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator --() SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( m_int != safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            --m_int;
            return *this;
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    // note that postfix operators have inherently worse perf
    // characteristics

    // postfix increment operator
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator ++( int )  SAFEINT_CPP_THROW // dummy arg to comply with spec
    {
        if( m_int != safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            SafeInt< T, E > tmp( m_int );

            m_int++;
            return tmp;
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    // postfix decrement operator
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator --( int ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW // dummy arg to comply with spec
    {
        if( m_int != safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() )
        {
            SafeInt< T, E > tmp( m_int );
            m_int--;
            return tmp;
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    // One's complement
    // Note - this operator will normally change size to an int
    // cast in return improves perf and maintains type
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeInt< T, E > operator ~() const SAFEINT_NOTHROW { return SafeInt< T, E >( (T)~m_int ); }

    // Binary operators
    //
    // arithmetic binary operators
    // % modulus
    // * multiplication
    // / division
    // + addition
    // - subtraction
    //
    // For each of the arithmetic operators, you will need to
    // use them as follows:
    //
    // SafeInt<char> c = 2;
    // SafeInt<int>  i = 3;
    //
    // SafeInt<int> i2 = i op (char)c;
    // OR
    // SafeInt<char> i2 = (int)i op c;
    //
    // The base problem is that if the lhs and rhs inputs are different SafeInt types
    // it is not possible in this implementation to determine what type of SafeInt
    // should be returned. You have to let the class know which of the two inputs
    // need to be the return type by forcing the other value to the base integer type.
    //
    // Note - as per feedback from Scott Meyers, I'm exploring how to get around this.
    // 3.0 update - I'm still thinking about this. It can be done with template metaprogramming,
    // but it is tricky, and there's a perf vs. correctness tradeoff where the right answer
    // is situational.
    //
    // The case of:
    //
    // SafeInt< T, E > i, j, k;
    // i = j op k;
    //
    // works just fine and no unboxing is needed because the return type is not ambiguous.

    // Modulus
    // Modulus has some convenient properties -
    // first, the magnitude of the return can never be
    // larger than the lhs operand, and it must be the same sign
    // as well. It does, however, suffer from the same promotion
    // problems as comparisons, division and other operations
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator %( U rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T result = 0;
        ModulusHelper< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::template ModulusThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, result );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( result );
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator %( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T result = 0;
        ModulusHelper< T, T, ValidComparison< T, T >::method >::template ModulusThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, result );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( result );
    }

    // Modulus assignment
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator %=( U rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        ModulusHelper< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::template ModulusThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator %=( SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        ModulusHelper< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::template ModulusThrow< E >( m_int, (U)rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    // Multiplication
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY SafeInt< T, E > operator *( U rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T ret( 0 );
        MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationMethod< T, U >::method >::template MultiplyThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, ret );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator *( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T ret( 0 );
        MultiplicationHelper< T, T, MultiplicationMethod< T, T >::method >::template MultiplyThrow< E >( m_int, (T)rhs, ret );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
    }

    // Multiplication assignment
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator *=( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        MultiplicationHelper< T, T, MultiplicationMethod< T, T >::method >::template MultiplyThrow< E >( m_int, (T)rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY SafeInt< T, E >& operator *=( U rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationMethod< T, U >::method >::template MultiplyThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY SafeInt< T, E >& operator *=( SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationMethod< T, U >::method >::template MultiplyThrow< E >( m_int, rhs.Ref(), m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    // Division
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator /( U rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T ret( 0 );
        DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionMethod< T, U >::method >::template DivideThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, ret );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator /( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T ret( 0 );
        DivisionHelper< T, T, DivisionMethod< T, T >::method >::template DivideThrow< E >( m_int, (T)rhs, ret );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
    }

    // Division assignment
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator /=( SafeInt< T, E > i ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        DivisionHelper< T, T, DivisionMethod< T, T >::method >::template DivideThrow< E >( m_int, (T)i, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator /=( U i ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionMethod< T, U >::method >::template DivideThrow< E >( m_int, i, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator /=( SafeInt< U, E > i )
    {
        DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionMethod< T, U >::method >::template DivideThrow< E >( m_int, (U)i, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    // For addition and subtraction

    // Addition
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator +( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T ret( 0 );
        AdditionHelper< T, T, AdditionMethod< T, T >::method >::template AdditionThrow< E >( m_int, (T)rhs, ret );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator +( U rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T ret( 0 );
        AdditionHelper< T, U, AdditionMethod< T, U >::method >::template AdditionThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, ret );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
    }

    //addition assignment
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator +=( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        AdditionHelper< T, T, AdditionMethod< T, T >::method >::template AdditionThrow< E >( m_int, (T)rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator +=( U rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        AdditionHelper< T, U, AdditionMethod< T, U >::method >::template AdditionThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator +=( SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        AdditionHelper< T, U, AdditionMethod< T, U >::method >::template AdditionThrow< E >( m_int, (U)rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    // Subtraction
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator -( U rhs ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T ret( 0 );
        SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionMethod< T, U >::method >::template SubtractThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, ret );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
    }

    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator -(SafeInt< T, E > rhs) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        T ret( 0 );
        SubtractionHelper< T, T, SubtractionMethod< T, T >::method >::template SubtractThrow< E >( m_int, (T)rhs, ret );
        return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
    }

    // Subtraction assignment
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator -=( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        SubtractionHelper< T, T, SubtractionMethod< T, T >::method >::template SubtractThrow< E >( m_int, (T)rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator -=( U rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionMethod< T, U >::method >::template SubtractThrow< E >( m_int, rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator -=( SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionMethod< T, U >::method >::template SubtractThrow< E >( m_int, (U)rhs, m_int );
        return *this;
    }

    // Shift operators
    // Note - shift operators ALWAYS return the same type as the lhs
    // specific version for SafeInt< T, E > not needed -
    // code path is exactly the same as for SafeInt< U, E > as rhs

    // Left shift

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator <<( U bits ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (ShiftHelper< T, U, ShiftMethod< T, true >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(m_int, bits))
        {
            return SafeInt< T, E >((T)(m_int << bits));
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator <<( SafeInt< U, E > bits ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (ShiftHelper< T, U, ShiftMethod< T, true >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(m_int, bits))
        {
            return SafeInt< T, E >((T)(m_int << (U)bits));
        }
        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    // Left shift assignment

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator <<=( U bits ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (ShiftHelper< T, U, ShiftMethod< T, true >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(m_int, bits))
        {
            m_int <<= bits;
            return *this;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator <<=( SafeInt< U, E > bits ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (ShiftHelper< T, U, ShiftMethod< T, true >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(m_int, bits))
        {
            m_int <<= (U)bits;
            return *this;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    // Right shift
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator >>( U bits ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (ShiftHelper< T, U, ShiftMethod< T, false >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(m_int, bits))
        {
            return SafeInt< T, E >((T)(m_int >> bits));
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator >>( SafeInt< U, E > bits ) const SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (ShiftHelper< T, U, ShiftMethod< T, false >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(m_int, bits))
        {
            return SafeInt< T, E >((T)(m_int >> (U)bits));
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    // Right shift assignment
    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator >>=( U bits ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (ShiftHelper< T, U, ShiftMethod< T, false >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(m_int, bits))
        {
            m_int >>= bits;
            return *this;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator >>=( SafeInt< U, E > bits ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if (ShiftHelper< T, U, ShiftMethod< T, false >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(m_int, bits))
        {
            m_int >>= (U)bits;
            return *this;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }

    // Bitwise operators
    // This only makes sense if we're dealing with the same type and size
    // demand a type T, or something that fits into a type T

    // Bitwise &
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator &( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return SafeInt< T, E >( m_int & (T)rhs );
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator &( U rhs ) const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // we want to avoid setting bits by surprise
        // consider the case of lhs = int, value = 0xffffffff
        //                      rhs = char, value = 0xff
        //
        // programmer intent is to get only the lower 8 bits
        // normal behavior is to upcast both sides to an int
        // which then sign extends rhs, setting all the bits

        // If you land in the assert, this is because the bitwise operator
        // was causing unexpected behavior. Fix is to properly cast your inputs
        // so that it works like you meant, not unexpectedly

        return SafeInt< T, E >( BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::And( m_int, rhs ) );
    }

    // Bitwise & assignment
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator &=( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int &= (T)rhs;
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator &=( U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int = BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::And( m_int, rhs );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator &=( SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int = BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::And( m_int, (U)rhs );
        return *this;
    }

    // XOR
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator ^( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return SafeInt< T, E >( (T)( m_int ^ (T)rhs ) );
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator ^( U rhs ) const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        // If you land in the assert, this is because the bitwise operator
        // was causing unexpected behavior. Fix is to properly cast your inputs
        // so that it works like you meant, not unexpectedly

        return SafeInt< T, E >( BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Xor( m_int, rhs ) );
    }

    // XOR assignment
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator ^=( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int ^= (T)rhs;
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator ^=( U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int = BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Xor( m_int, rhs );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator ^=( SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int = BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Xor( m_int, (U)rhs );
        return *this;
    }

    // bitwise OR
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator |( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return SafeInt< T, E >( (T)( m_int | (T)rhs ) );
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator |( U rhs ) const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return SafeInt< T, E >( BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Or( m_int, rhs ) );
    }

    // bitwise OR assignment
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator |=( SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int |= (T)rhs;
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator |=( U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int = BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Or( m_int, rhs );
        return *this;
    }

    template < typename U >
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E >& operator |=( SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        m_int = BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Or( m_int, (U)rhs );
        return *this;
    }

    // Miscellaneous helper functions
    SafeInt< T, E > Min( SafeInt< T, E > test, const T floor = safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>() ) const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        T tmp = test < m_int ? (T)test : m_int;
        return tmp < floor ? floor : tmp;
    }

    SafeInt< T, E > Max( SafeInt< T, E > test, const T upper = safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() ) const SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        T tmp = test > m_int ? (T)test : m_int;
        return tmp > upper ? upper : tmp;
    }

    void Swap( SafeInt< T, E >& with ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        T temp( m_int );
        m_int = with.m_int;
        with.m_int = temp;
    }

    static SafeInt< T, E > SafeAtoI( const char* input ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        return SafeTtoI( input );
    }

    static SafeInt< T, E > SafeWtoI( const wchar_t* input )
    {
        return SafeTtoI( input );
    }

    enum alignBits
    {
        align2 = 1,
        align4 = 2,
        align8 = 3,
        align16 = 4,
        align32 = 5,
        align64 = 6,
        align128 = 7,
        align256 = 8
    };

    template < alignBits bits >
    const SafeInt< T, E >& Align() SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // Can't align unsigned numbers on bitCount (e.g., 8 bits = 256, unsigned char max = 255)
        // or signed numbers on bitCount-1 (e.g., 7 bits = 128, signed char max = 127).
        // Also makes no sense to try to align on negative or no bits.
        static_assert( bits >= 0, "Cannot align on a negative bit count" );
        static_assert(
            std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed
                ? bits < (int)safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::bitCount - 1
                : bits < (int)safeint_internal::int_traits< T >::bitCount,
            "Alignment bit count is too large for type T" );

        // Zero is always aligned
        if( m_int == 0 )
            return *this;

        // We don't support aligning negative numbers.  The post-mask check
        // below would usually catch a negative result, but only by relying
        // on signed-overflow UB to wrap predictably -- so reject up front.
        if( lhs_is_negative< T, std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed >::value( m_int ) )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        const T AlignValue = ( (T)1 << bits ) - 1;

        // Perform the addition in unsigned for signed T to avoid the
        // signed-overflow UB on (m_int + AlignValue) near max(T).  The
        // post-check below will still detect the wrap.
        m_int = align_addmask< T, std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed >::value( m_int, AlignValue );

        if( m_int <= 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        return *this;
    }

    // Commonly needed alignments:
    const SafeInt< T, E >& Align2()  { return Align< align2 >(); }
    const SafeInt< T, E >& Align4()  { return Align< align4 >(); }
    const SafeInt< T, E >& Align8()  { return Align< align8 >(); }
    const SafeInt< T, E >& Align16() { return Align< align16 >(); }
    const SafeInt< T, E >& Align32() { return Align< align32 >(); }
    const SafeInt< T, E >& Align64() { return Align< align64 >(); }
private:

    // This is almost certainly not the best optimized version of atoi,
    // but it does not display a typical bug where it isn't possible to set MinInt
    // and it won't allow you to overflow your integer.
    // This is here because it is useful, and it is an example of what
    // can be done easily with SafeInt.
    template < typename U >
    static SafeInt< T, E > SafeTtoI( U* input ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        U* tmp  = input;
        SafeInt< T, E > s;
        bool negative = false;

        // Bad input, or empty string
        if( input == nullptr || input[0] == 0 )
            E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

        switch( *tmp )
        {
        case '-':
            tmp++;
            negative = true;
            break;
        case '+':
            tmp++;
            break;
        }

        while( *tmp != 0 )
        {
            if( *tmp < '0' || *tmp > '9' )
                break;

            if( (T)s != 0 )
                s *= (T)10;

            if( !negative )
                s += (T)( *tmp - '0' );
            else
                s -= (T)( *tmp - '0' );

            tmp++;
        }

        return s;
    }

    T m_int;
};

// Helper function used to subtract pointers.
// Used to squelch warnings
template <typename P>
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeInt<ptrdiff_t, SafeIntDefaultExceptionHandler> SafePtrDiff(const P* p1, const P* p2) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    return ( p1 - p2 );
}

// Comparison operators

//Less than
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator <( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( (T)rhs, lhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator <( SafeInt<T, E> lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return GreaterThanTest< U, T, ValidComparison< U, T >::method >::GreaterThan( rhs, (T)lhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator <( SafeInt< U, E > lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( (T)rhs, (U)lhs );
}

// Greater than
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator >( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return GreaterThanTest< U, T, ValidComparison< U, T >::method >::GreaterThan( lhs, (T)rhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator >( SafeInt<T, E> lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( (T)lhs, rhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator >( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( (T)lhs, (U)rhs );
}

// Greater than or equal
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator >=( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( (T)rhs, lhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator >=( SafeInt<T, E> lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !GreaterThanTest< U, T, ValidComparison< U, T >::method >::GreaterThan( rhs, (T)lhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator >=( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !GreaterThanTest< U, T, ValidComparison< U, T >::method >::GreaterThan( (U)rhs, (T)lhs );
}

// Less than or equal
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator <=( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !GreaterThanTest< U, T, ValidComparison< U, T >::method >::GreaterThan( lhs, (T)rhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator <=( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( (T)lhs, rhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator <=( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !GreaterThanTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::GreaterThan( (T)lhs, (U)rhs );
}

// equality
// explicit overload for bool
template < typename T, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator ==( bool lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return lhs == ( (T)rhs == 0 ? false : true );
}

template < typename T, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator ==( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, bool rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return rhs == ( (T)lhs == 0 ? false : true );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator ==( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return EqualityTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::IsEquals((T)rhs, lhs);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator ==( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return EqualityTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::IsEquals( (T)lhs, rhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator ==( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return EqualityTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::IsEquals( (T)lhs, (U)rhs );
}

//not equals
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator !=( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !EqualityTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::IsEquals( (T)rhs, lhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator !=( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, U rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !EqualityTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::IsEquals( (T)lhs, rhs );
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator !=( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return !EqualityTest< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::IsEquals( lhs, rhs );
}


template < typename T, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator !=( bool lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return ( (T)rhs == 0 ? false : true ) != lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 bool operator !=( SafeInt< T, E > lhs, bool rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return ( (T)lhs == 0 ? false : true ) != rhs;
}


template < typename T, typename U, typename E, int method > class ModulusSimpleCaseHelper;

template < typename T, typename E, int method > class ModulusSignedCaseHelper;

template < typename T, typename E > class ModulusSignedCaseHelper < T, E, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool SignedCase( SafeInt< T, E > rhs, SafeInt< T, E >& result ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        if( (T)rhs == (T)-1 )
        {
            result = 0;
            return true;
        }
        return false;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename E > class ModulusSignedCaseHelper < T, E, false >
{
public:
    SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 static bool SignedCase( SafeInt< T, E > /*rhs*/, SafeInt< T, E >& /*result*/ ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return false;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
class ModulusSimpleCaseHelper < T, U, E, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool ModulusSimpleCase( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs, SafeInt< T, E >& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( rhs != 0 )
        {
            if( ModulusSignedCaseHelper< T, E, std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed >::SignedCase( rhs, result ) )
            return true;

            result = (T)( lhs % (T)rhs );
            return true;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnDivZero();
    }
};

template< typename T, typename U, typename E >
class ModulusSimpleCaseHelper < T, U, E, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool ModulusSimpleCase( U /*lhs*/, SafeInt< T, E > /*rhs*/, SafeInt< T, E >& /*result*/ ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return false;
    }
};

// Modulus
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator %( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    // Value of return depends on sign of lhs
    // This one may not be safe - bounds check in constructor
    // if lhs is negative and rhs is unsigned, this will throw an exception.

    // Fast-track the simple case
    // same size and same sign
    SafeInt< T, E > result;

    if( ModulusSimpleCaseHelper< T, U, E, (sizeof(T) == sizeof(U)) && ((bool)std::numeric_limits< T >::is_signed == (bool)std::numeric_limits< U >::is_signed) >::ModulusSimpleCase( lhs, rhs, result ) )
        return result;

    result = (SafeInt< U, E >(lhs) % (T)rhs);
    return result;
}

// Multiplication
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14_MULTIPLY SafeInt< T, E > operator *( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    T ret( 0 );
    MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationMethod< T, U >::method >::template MultiplyThrow< E >( (T)rhs, lhs, ret );
    return SafeInt< T, E >(ret);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E, int method > class DivisionNegativeCornerCaseHelper;

template < typename T, typename U, bool > class division_negative_negateU;

template < typename T, typename U > class division_negative_negateU< T, U, true>
{
public:
    // sizeof(T) == 4
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static U div(T rhs, U lhs) { return lhs / (U)(~(std::uint32_t)(T)rhs + 1); }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class division_negative_negateU< T, U, false>
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static U div(T rhs, U lhs) { return lhs / (U)(~(std::uint64_t)(T)rhs + 1); }
};

template < typename T, typename U, typename E > class DivisionNegativeCornerCaseHelper< T, U, E, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD static bool NegativeCornerCase( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs, SafeInt<T, E>& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        // Problem case - normal casting behavior changes meaning
        // flip rhs to positive
        // any operator casts now do the right thing
        U tmp = division_negative_negateU< T, U, sizeof(T) == 4>::div(rhs, lhs);

        if( tmp <= (U)safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>() )
        {
            result = SafeInt< T, E >( (T)(~(std::uint64_t)tmp + 1) );
            return true;
        }

        // Corner case
        T maxT = safeint_internal::safeint_max<T>();
        if( tmp == (U)maxT + 1 )
        {
            T minT = safeint_internal::safeint_min<T>();
            result = SafeInt< T, E >( minT );
            return true;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, typename E > class DivisionNegativeCornerCaseHelper< T, U, E, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool NegativeCornerCase( U /*lhs*/, SafeInt< T, E > /*rhs*/, SafeInt<T, E>& /*result*/ ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return false;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, typename E, int method > class DivisionCornerCaseHelper;

template < typename T, typename U, typename E > class DivisionCornerCaseHelper < T, U, E, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool DivisionCornerCase1( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs, SafeInt<T, E>& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( (T)rhs > 0 )
        {
            result = SafeInt< T, E >( lhs/(T)rhs );
            return true;
        }

        // Now rhs is either negative, or zero
        if( (T)rhs != 0 )
        {
            if( DivisionNegativeCornerCaseHelper< T, U, E, sizeof( U ) >= 4 && sizeof( T ) <= sizeof( U ) >::NegativeCornerCase( lhs, rhs, result ) )
                return true;

            result = SafeInt< T, E >(lhs/(T)rhs);
            return true;
        }

        E::SafeIntOnDivZero();
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, typename E > class DivisionCornerCaseHelper < T, U, E, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool DivisionCornerCase1( U /*lhs*/, SafeInt< T, E > /*rhs*/, SafeInt<T, E>& /*result*/ ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return false;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, typename E, int method > class DivisionCornerCaseHelper2;

template < typename T, typename U, bool > class div_negate_min;

template < typename T, typename U > class div_negate_min < T, U , true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Value(T& ret)
    {
        ret = (T)(-(T)safeint_internal::safeint_min<U>());
        return true;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U > class div_negate_min < T, U, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool Value(T& )
    {
        return false;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, typename E > class DivisionCornerCaseHelper2 < T, U, E, true >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 static bool DivisionCornerCase2( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs, SafeInt<T, E>& result ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
    {
        if( lhs == safeint_internal::safeint_min<U>() && (T)rhs == -1 )
        {
            // corner case of a corner case - lhs = min int, rhs = -1,
            // but rhs is the return type, so in essence, we can return -lhs
            // if rhs is a larger type than lhs
            // If types are wrong, throws
            T tmp = 0;

            if (div_negate_min< T, U, sizeof(U) < sizeof(T) > ::Value(tmp))
                result = tmp;
            else
                E::SafeIntOnOverflow();

            return true;
        }

        return false;
    }
};

template < typename T, typename U, typename E > class DivisionCornerCaseHelper2 < T, U, E, false >
{
public:
    SAFE_INT_NODISCARD SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11  static bool DivisionCornerCase2( U /*lhs*/, SafeInt< T, E > /*rhs*/, SafeInt<T, E>& /*result*/ ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
    {
        return false;
    }
};

// Division
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator /( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    // Corner case - has to be handled seperately
    SafeInt< T, E > result;
    if( DivisionCornerCaseHelper< T, U, E, (int)DivisionMethod< U, T >::method == (int)DivisionState_UnsignedSigned >::DivisionCornerCase1( lhs, rhs, result ) )
        return result;

    if( DivisionCornerCaseHelper2< T, U, E, safeint_internal::type_compare< T, U >::isBothSigned >::DivisionCornerCase2( lhs, rhs, result ) )
        return result;

    // Otherwise normal logic works with addition of bounds check when casting from U->T
    U ret = 0;
    DivisionHelper< U, T, DivisionMethod< U, T >::method >::template DivideThrow< E >( lhs, (T)rhs, ret );
    return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
}

// Addition
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator +( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    T ret( 0 );
    AdditionHelper< T, U, AdditionMethod< T, U >::method >::template AdditionThrow< E >( (T)rhs, lhs, ret );
    return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
}

// Subtraction
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< T, E > operator -( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    T ret( 0 );
    SubtractionHelper< U, T, SubtractionMethod2< U, T >::method >::template SubtractThrow< E >( lhs, rhs.Ref(), ret );

    return SafeInt< T, E >( ret );
}

// Overrides designed to deal with cases where a SafeInt is assigned out
// to a normal int - this at least makes the last operation safe
// +=
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator +=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    T ret( 0 );
    AdditionHelper< T, U, AdditionMethod< T, U >::method >::template AdditionThrow< E >( lhs, (U)rhs, ret );
    lhs = ret;
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator -=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    T ret( 0 );
    SubtractionHelper< T, U, SubtractionMethod< T, U >::method >::template SubtractThrow< E >( lhs, (U)rhs, ret );
    lhs = ret;
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator *=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    T ret( 0 );
    MultiplicationHelper< T, U, MultiplicationMethod< T, U >::method >::template MultiplyThrow< E >( lhs, (U)rhs, ret );
    lhs = ret;
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator /=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    T ret( 0 );
    DivisionHelper< T, U, DivisionMethod< T, U >::method >::template DivideThrow< E >( lhs, (U)rhs, ret );
    lhs = ret;
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator %=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    T ret( 0 );
    ModulusHelper< T, U, ValidComparison< T, U >::method >::template ModulusThrow< E >( lhs, (U)rhs, ret );
    lhs = ret;
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator &=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    lhs = BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::And( lhs, (U)rhs );
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator ^=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    lhs = BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Xor( lhs, (U)rhs );
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator |=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    lhs = BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Or( lhs, (U)rhs );
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator <<=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    lhs = (T)( SafeInt< T, E >( lhs ) << (U)rhs );
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T& operator >>=( T& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    lhs = (T)( SafeInt< T, E >( lhs ) >> (U)rhs );
    return lhs;
}

// Specific pointer overrides
// Note - this function makes no attempt to ensure
// that the resulting pointer is still in the buffer, only
// that no int overflows happened on the way to getting the new pointer
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
T*& operator +=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    // Cast the pointer to a number so we can do arithmetic
    // Note: this doesn't really make sense as a constexpr, but cannot be because of the reinterpret_cast
    SafeInt< size_t, E > ptr_val = reinterpret_cast< size_t >( lhs );
    // Check first that rhs is valid for the type of ptrdiff_t
    // and that multiplying by sizeof( T ) doesn't overflow a ptrdiff_t
    // Next, we need to add 2 SafeInts of different types, so unbox the ptr_diff
    // Finally, cast the number back to a pointer of the correct type
    lhs = reinterpret_cast< T* >( (size_t)( ptr_val + (ptrdiff_t)( SafeInt< ptrdiff_t, E >( rhs ) * sizeof( T ) ) ) );
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
T*& operator -=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    // Cast the pointer to a number so we can do arithmetic
    SafeInt< size_t, E > ptr_val = reinterpret_cast< size_t >( lhs );
    // See above for comments
    lhs = reinterpret_cast< T* >( (size_t)( ptr_val - (ptrdiff_t)( SafeInt< ptrdiff_t, E >( rhs ) * sizeof( T ) ) ) );
    return lhs;
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
T*& operator *=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // This operator explicitly not supported
    static_assert( sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsupported operator" );
    return (lhs = nullptr);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
T*& operator /=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // This operator explicitly not supported
    static_assert(sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsupported operator");
    return (lhs = nullptr);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
T*& operator %=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // This operator explicitly not supported
    static_assert(sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsupported operator");
    return (lhs = nullptr);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
T*& operator &=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // This operator explicitly not supported
    static_assert(sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsupported operator");
    return (lhs = nullptr);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
T*& operator ^=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // This operator explicitly not supported
    static_assert(sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsupported operator");
    return (lhs = nullptr);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
T*& operator |=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // This operator explicitly not supported
    static_assert(sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsupported operator");
    return (lhs = nullptr);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T*& operator <<=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // This operator explicitly not supported
    static_assert(sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsupported operator");
    return (lhs = nullptr);
}

template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 T*& operator >>=( T*& lhs, SafeInt< U, E > ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    // This operator explicitly not supported
    static_assert(sizeof(T) == 0, "Unsupported operator");
    return (lhs = nullptr);
}

// Shift operators
// NOTE - shift operators always return the type of the lhs argument

// Left shift
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< U, E > operator <<( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > bits ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    if (ShiftHelper< U, T, ShiftMethod< U, true >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(lhs, bits))
    {
        return SafeInt< U, E >((U)(lhs << (T)bits));
    }

    E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
}

// Right shift
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR14 SafeInt< U, E > operator >>( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > bits ) SAFEINT_CPP_THROW
{
    if (ShiftHelper< U, T, ShiftMethod< U, false >::isSignedLeftShift >::ValidBitcount(lhs, bits))
    {
        return SafeInt< U, E >((U)(lhs >> (T)bits));
    }

    E::SafeIntOnOverflow();
}

// Bitwise operators
// This only makes sense if we're dealing with the same type and size
// demand a type T, or something that fits into a type T.

// Bitwise &
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeInt< T, E > operator &( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return SafeInt< T, E >( BinaryAndHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::And( (T)rhs, lhs ) );
}

// Bitwise XOR
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeInt< T, E > operator ^( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return SafeInt< T, E >(BinaryXorHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Xor( (T)rhs, lhs ) );
}

// Bitwise OR
template < typename T, typename U, typename E >
SAFEINT_CONSTEXPR11 SafeInt< T, E > operator |( U lhs, SafeInt< T, E > rhs ) SAFEINT_NOTHROW
{
    return SafeInt< T, E >( BinaryOrHelper< T, U, BinaryMethod< T, U >::method >::Or( (T)rhs, lhs ) );
}

#endif //SAFEINT_HPP