decimal-scaled 0.2.3

# Algorithms used in `decimal-scaled`


Catalogue of the published algorithms the crate evaluates, with
academic citations and the source files where each is implemented.
This is engineering credit — it complements `LICENSE-THIRD-PARTY`
(which covers verbatim/adapted code from upstream repositories) by
giving the *idea* attributions. For the lines-of-code attributions
see `LICENSE-THIRD-PARTY`.

## Integer arithmetic


### Möller–Granlund magic-number division by an invariant


Used for the `÷ 10^SCALE` step in every `Mul` / `Div` operator and in
`rescale`. The divisor `10^SCALE` is known at compile time, so a
pre-computed magic constant and a single 128-bit multiplication plus
a one-step correction replace a generic divide instruction. The
crate ships a 39-entry table (`MG_EXP_MAGICS`, scales 0–38) and the
256/128-bit fast-2-word divide built around it.

> Möller, N. and Granlund, T. (2011). **"Improved Division by Invariant
> Integers."** *IEEE Transactions on Computers* **60(2)**, 165–175.
> DOI: [10.1109/TC.2010.143](https://doi.org/10.1109/TC.2010.143).

Earlier foundational reference for the magic-multiplier idea:

> Granlund, T. and Montgomery, P. L. (1994). **"Division by Invariant
> Integers using Multiplication."** *Proc. PLDI '94*. ACM, 61–72.
> DOI: [10.1145/178243.178249](https://doi.org/10.1145/178243.178249).

Implementation: `src/mg_divide.rs` (`mul2`, `div_exp_fast_2word`,
`div_exp_fast_2word_with_rem`, `MG_EXP_MAGICS`). The algorithm shape
was adapted from the
[`primitive_fixed_point_decimal`](https://github.com/WuBingzheng/primitive_fixed_point_decimal)
crate — see `LICENSE-THIRD-PARTY` for the verbatim attribution.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Division algorithm § Division by a constant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_algorithm#Division_by_a_constant)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Division](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Division.html)
- Niels Möller's homepage: <https://www.lysator.liu.se/~nisse/>
- Torbjörn Granlund's homepage (GMP project): <https://gmplib.org/~tege/>

### Base-2¹²⁸ schoolbook multiplication


Standard `O(n²)` algorithm; for `n ≤ 4` limbs the constant factor is
small enough that more sophisticated algorithms (Karatsuba,
Toom-Cook) lose to it on this crate's operand sizes.
Implementation: `src/wide_int/mod.rs::limbs_mul`, with a hand-unrolled
2×2 fast path.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Multiplication algorithm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication_algorithm)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Multiplication](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Multiplication.html)

### Base-2⁶⁴ schoolbook long division (u64-divisor fast path)


For divisors that fit a 64-bit word, the crate uses one hardware
divide per 64-bit half-limb of the dividend. This is the standard
schoolbook long division, transcribed for `[u128]` limb storage.
Implementation: `src/wide_int/mod.rs::limbs_divmod` (fast path B);
`src/mg_divide.rs::div_long_256_by_128` (256-bit specialisation).

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Long division](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_division)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Long division](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/LongDivision.html)

### Binary shift-subtract long division (fallback)


Last-resort divide for arbitrary 128+ bit divisors. One bit per
iteration, total iterations equal to the dividend's actual bit
length (precomputed via `leading_zeros`).
Implementation: `src/wide_int/mod.rs::limbs_divmod` general path;
`src/mg_divide.rs::div_long_256_by_128` general path.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Division algorithm § Restoring division](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_algorithm#Restoring_division)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Division](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Division.html)

## Roots


### Newton iteration for integer square root (`isqrt`)


`x_{k+1} = (x_k + N / x_k) / 2`, started from a power-of-2
overestimate so the sequence decreases monotonically. Converges
quadratically. Implementation: `src/mg_divide.rs::isqrt_256`,
`src/wide_int/mod.rs::limbs_isqrt`.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Methods of computing square roots § Heron's method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_of_computing_square_roots#Heron's_method)
- Wikipedia — [Newton's method § Description](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method#Description) (the parent recurrence)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Square Root](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/SquareRoot.html), [Newton's Method](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/NewtonsMethod.html)

### Newton iteration for integer cube root (`icbrt`)


`x_{k+1} = (2·x_k + N / x_k²) / 3`. Same monotone-decreasing setup
as `isqrt`. Implementation: `src/mg_divide.rs::icbrt_384`,
`src/macros/wide_roots.rs` (decl_wide_roots! emits a 384/512-bit
variant per wide tier).

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Cube root § Numerical methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_root#Numerical_methods)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Cube Root](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/CubeRoot.html)

### Correctly-rounded sqrt / cbrt


After the integer root `q = floor(N^{1/k})`, the crate decides
"round up to `q+1`?" by an integer comparison of `N` against the
midpoint, which is an integer for sqrt (the midpoint test is
`N − q² > q`) and a multiple of `1/8` for cbrt (the test is
`8N ≥ (2q + 1)³`). For integer `N` the midpoint is never an integer
in either case, so the rounding decision is mode-independent —
every `RoundingMode` agrees with the half-to-nearest choice.
Implementation: `src/mg_divide.rs::sqrt_raw_correctly_rounded` /
`cbrt_raw_correctly_rounded`; the wide-tier counterparts in
`src/macros/wide_roots.rs`.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [IEEE 754 § Roundings to nearest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754#Roundings_to_nearest) (the "correctly rounded" contract the crate emulates at the storage scale)

## Transcendentals


### `ln` via Mercator's series of `artanh`


Range-reduce `x = 2^k · m` with `m ∈ [1, 2)`, then compute
`ln(m) = 2·artanh((m − 1) / (m + 1))`. The argument `t = (m − 1) /
(m + 1)` lies in `[0, 1/3]`, so the Mercator series
`artanh(t) = t + t³/3 + t⁵/5 + …` converges as roughly `3^(-n)` —
about 22 terms per decimal digit.

Mercator's logarithm series:

> Mercator, N. (1668). *Logarithmotechnia*. (Cited via Borwein &
> Borwein, "Pi and the AGM", 1987, Wiley.)

The artanh form is a textbook identity; combined with bit-by-bit
range reduction it's sometimes called the "Cody–Waite" approach
after the influential 1980 implementation:

> Cody, W. J. and Waite, W. (1980). **"Software Manual for the
> Elementary Functions."** Prentice-Hall.

Implementation: `src/log_exp_strict.rs::ln_fixed` (D38),
`src/macros/wide_transcendental.rs::ln_fixed` (D76/D153/D307).

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Mercator series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_series) (the `ln(1+x)` expansion at the top)
- Wikipedia — [Inverse hyperbolic functions § Series expansions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_hyperbolic_functions#Series_expansions) (the `artanh` series the crate evaluates)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Mercator Series](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/MercatorSeries.html), [Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/InverseHyperbolicTangent.html)

### `exp` via range-reduced Taylor series


Range-reduce `x = k · ln 2 + s` with `|s| ≤ ln 2 / 2`, then
`exp(x) = 2^k · exp(s)`. The Taylor series for `exp(s)` converges
absolutely on the reduced interval. The same Cody–Waite shape.
Implementation: `src/log_exp_strict.rs::exp_fixed`,
`src/macros/wide_transcendental.rs::exp_fixed`.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Exponential function § Computation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_function#Computation) (the Taylor series and the `2^k · exp(s)` reduction)
- Wikipedia — [Taylor series § Exponential function](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series#Exponential_function)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Exponential Function](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ExponentialFunction.html), [Maclaurin Series](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/MaclaurinSeries.html)

### `sin` / `cos` via range-reduced Taylor


Reduce to `[0, π/4]` (or `[0, π/2]` in the wide path, slightly
slower convergence), Taylor-expand `sin`, recover `cos` from
`sin(x + π/2)`. Same Cody–Waite shape.
Implementation: `src/trig_strict.rs::sin_fixed`,
`src/macros/wide_transcendental.rs::sin_fixed` / `sin_taylor`.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Taylor series § Trigonometric functions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series#Trigonometric_functions) (the `sin x = x − x³/3! + …` and `cos x = 1 − x²/2! + …` series)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Sine](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Sine.html), [Cosine](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Cosine.html), [Maclaurin Series](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/MaclaurinSeries.html)

### `atan` via three argument halvings + Taylor


The identity `atan(x) = 2·atan(x / (1 + √(1 + x²)))` halves the
argument; applying it three times reduces |x| by ≈ 8×, then the
Taylor series for `atan` converges in ≈ `w · log₂(10) / 3` terms
at working scale `w`. Re-multiply by `2^3 = 8` at the end.
Implementation: `src/trig_strict.rs::atan_fixed`,
`src/macros/wide_transcendental.rs::atan_fixed`.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Inverse trigonometric functions § Infinite series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_trigonometric_functions#Infinite_series) (the `atan` Taylor series)
- Wikipedia — [Inverse trigonometric functions § Argument halving](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_trigonometric_functions) (the halving identity)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Inverse Tangent](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/InverseTangent.html)

### `π` via Machin's formula (wide tier only)


`π = 16·atan(1/5) − 4·atan(1/239)`. Each `atan` is evaluated via the
crate's Taylor implementation; with the small arguments the series
converges fast.

> Machin, J. (1706). Cited via Beckmann, P. (1971). *A History of π*.
> St. Martin's Press.

Implementation: `src/macros/wide_transcendental.rs::pi`. (D38
embeds `π` to 63 fractional digits as a literal — no series at run
time, since the constant fits the working width comfortably.)

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Machin-like formula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machin-like_formula) (the `π = 16 atan(1/5) − 4 atan(1/239)` equation at the top)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Machin's Formula](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/MachinsFormula.html), [Pi Formulas](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/PiFormulas.html)

### Hyperbolic functions


Composed from `exp`/`ln`:
- `sinh(x) = (eˣ − e⁻ˣ) / 2`
- `cosh(x) = (eˣ + e⁻ˣ) / 2`
- `tanh(x) = sinh(x) / cosh(x)`
- `asinh(x) = ln(x + √(x² + 1))` (with the `x ≥ 1` form factored as
  `ln(x) + ln(1 + √(1 + 1/x²))` to keep `x²` in the working width)
- `acosh(x) = ln(x + √(x² − 1))` (analogous factoring for `x ≥ 2`)
- `atanh(x) = ln((1 + x) / (1 − x)) / 2`

All textbook identities — no specific paper attribution.
Implementation: `src/trig_strict.rs`, `src/macros/wide_transcendental.rs`.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Hyperbolic functions § Definitions in terms of the exponential function](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions#Definitions) (the `sinh`/`cosh`/`tanh` identities)
- Wikipedia — [Inverse hyperbolic functions § Logarithmic forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_hyperbolic_functions#Logarithmic_representation) (the `asinh`/`acosh`/`atanh` log-forms)
- Wolfram MathWorld — [Hyperbolic Functions](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/HyperbolicFunctions.html), [Inverse Hyperbolic Functions](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/InverseHyperbolicFunctions.html)

## Rounding


### Half-to-even (banker's rounding) and the IEEE-754 family


The crate's default rounding rule. Implementation in
`src/rounding.rs::should_bump`, dispatched per
[`RoundingMode`](src/rounding.rs) via a strategy hook.

> IEEE Std 754-2019. **"IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic."**
> IEEE Standards Association.

Further reading:

- Wikipedia — [Rounding § Round half to even](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding#Round_half_to_even) (the tie-breaking rule the crate uses by default)
- Wikipedia — [IEEE 754 § Roundings to nearest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754#Roundings_to_nearest)

## Constants


The mathematical constants in `src/consts.rs` (`pi`, `tau`,
`half_pi`, `quarter_pi`, `e`, `golden`) are stored as 37-digit raw
`i128` values at `SCALE_REF = 37` (the i128 maximum for the
largest of the six). Sources:

- `pi`, `tau`, `half_pi`, `quarter_pi`: ISO 80000-2.
- `e`: OEIS A001113.
- `golden`: OEIS A001622.

## Cross-over algorithms


- **Karatsuba multiplication.** Implemented in
  `wide_int::limbs_mul_karatsuba` and dispatched to by
  `wide_int::limbs_mul_fast` when both operands are equal-length and at
  least `KARATSUBA_MIN = 16` limbs. Below that threshold, schoolbook
  wins outright; at or above it, the recursive
  `(a₁b₁, (a₁+a₀)(b₁+b₀) − a₁b₁ − a₀b₀, a₀b₀)` decomposition reduces
  the asymptotic cost. In practice the threshold means storage tiers
  through Int1024 (8 limbs) use schoolbook; the 2048-/4096-bit work
  integers behind the wide-tier strict transcendentals (Int2048 = 16
  limbs, Int4096 = 32 limbs) hit the Karatsuba path. (Karatsuba, A. and
  Ofman, Yu. (1962). *Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR* 145, 293–294.) Anatoly
  Karatsuba (1937–2008) and Yuri Ofman are both deceased; see the
  Wikipedia biography links below. Further reading:
  [Karatsuba algorithm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm),
  [Anatoly Karatsuba bio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoly_Karatsuba),
  [Yuri Ofman bio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Ofman),
  [MathWorld — Karatsuba Algorithm](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/KaratsubaAlgorithm.html).
- **AGM-based ln / exp (Brent–Salamin 1976).** `ln_strict_agm`
  (D76 / D153 / D307) uses Brent's identity
  `ln(s) ≈ π / (2 · AGM(1, 4/s))` with range reduction
  `ln(x) = ln(x · 2^m) − m·ln 2`. `exp_strict_agm` uses Newton's
  iteration on `ln_strict_agm`. Both converge quadratically — `O(log
  p)` iterations vs the artanh path's `O(p)` series terms — so they
  win asymptotically as working scale grows. Currently exposed as
  the alternate path; the canonical `ln_strict` / `exp_strict` stays
  on the artanh / Taylor implementations until a bench at the
  relevant working scale shows AGM winning by the
  `OVERRIDE_POLICY.md` margin. *Caveat:* the present
  implementation runs the AGM iteration at the same working scale
  `w` as the artanh path; at storage scales beyond ~30 the early-
  phase `sqrt(a·b)` step's truncation error amplifies and the
  output drops to ~p/2 bits of precision. Brent §3 fixes this by
  raising intermediate AGM precision; recorded as a follow-up.
  (Brent, R. P. (1976). "Fast multiple-precision evaluation of
  elementary functions." *J. ACM* 23(2), 242–251.) Richard Brent
  is at ANU — homepage: <https://maths-people.anu.edu.au/~brent/>.
  Further reading:
  [Arithmetic–geometric mean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic%E2%80%93geometric_mean#Definition)
  (the `aₙ₊₁ = (aₙ+bₙ)/2`, `bₙ₊₁ = √(aₙ bₙ)` recurrence),
  [Gauss–Legendre algorithm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Legendre_algorithm)
  (the same AGM iteration applied to π),
  [MathWorld — Arithmetic-Geometric Mean](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Arithmetic-GeometricMean.html).
- **Burnikel–Ziegler recursive division.** `limbs_divmod_bz` in
  `src/wide_int/mod.rs` is the recursive wrapper; its base case is
  the in-crate Knuth Algorithm D port (`limbs_divmod_knuth`,
  TAOCP §4.3.1 adapted to base 2^128). Both functions sit
  alongside the canonical const-fn binary `limbs_divmod` — the
  canonical path is unchanged, and `_knuth` / `_bz` are exposed for
  bench-driven promotion. Knuth's `O(m·n)` multi-limb shape beats
  the binary path's `O((m+n)·n·128)` for any multi-limb divisor;
  BZ's recursion adds value only past the threshold (currently
  `BZ_THRESHOLD = 8` limbs) and the full §3 two-by-one /
  three-by-two recursion is recorded as the next layer to add once
  a bench shows it winning at this crate's widths. (Burnikel, C.
  and Ziegler, J. (1998). "Fast recursive division." MPI-I-98-1-022;
  Knuth, D. E. (1981). *The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 2:
  Seminumerical Algorithms*, §4.3.1.) Donald Knuth's homepage:
  <https://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/>. Further reading:
  [Division algorithm § Newton–Raphson division and recursive
   division](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_algorithm)
  (no dedicated BZ article, but the parent page lists the
   recursive-division family),
  [MathWorld — Long Division](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/LongDivision.html).
  The Burnikel–Ziegler tech report is the canonical algorithm
  reference: [MPI-I-98-1-022](https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_1819444_4/component/file_2599480/content).
- **CORDIC.** Common in hardware floating-point; not competitive
  with Taylor + reduction in a software fixed-point context.
  Further reading: [CORDIC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CORDIC)
  (the rotation-mode and vectoring-mode iterations are the central
  equations there), [MathWorld — CORDIC](https://mathworld.wolfram.com/CORDIC.html).

## Related external crates (benchmark baselines only)


- [`bnum`](https://github.com/isaacholt100/bnum) — fixed-width
  big-integer crate, used as a wide-int baseline in
  `benches/wide_int_backends.rs`.
- [`ruint`](https://github.com/recmo/uint) — Ethereum-flavoured
  wide-integer crate, used as a 256-bit baseline.
- [`rust_decimal`](https://github.com/paupino/rust-decimal) —
  96-bit-mantissa decimal crate, used as a decimal baseline.
- [`fixed`](https://gitlab.com/tspiteri/fixed) — binary fixed-point
  crate, used for the I64F64 baseline.

These crates are `dev-dependencies` only — they are never compiled
into a normal build.