# StoragePlus
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[notice-url]: NOTICE
**Storage abstractions for CosmWasm smart contracts**
## Rust crates
The following Rust crates are maintained in this repository:
| **`cw-storage-plus`** | Contract development | [![cw-storage-plus][crates-badge-cw-storage-plus]][crates-url-cw-storage-plus] | [![docs-storage-plus][docs-badge-cw-storage-plus]][docs-url-cw-storage-plus] | ![coverage-cw-storage-plus][coverage-badge-cw-storage-plus] |
| **`cw-storage-macro`** | Contract development | [![cw-storage-macro][crates-badge-cw-storage-macro]][crates-url-cw-storage-macro] | [![docs-storage-macro][docs-badge-cw-storage-macro]][docs-url-cw-storage-macro] | ![coverage-cw-storage-macro][coverage-badge-cw-storage-macro] |
## Introduction
This has been heavily used in many production-quality contracts.
The code has demonstrated itself to be stable and powerful.
It is mature enough to be the **standard storage layer** for your contracts.
## Overview
We introduce two main classes to provide a productive abstraction
on top of `cosmwasm_std::Storage`. They are `Item`, which is
a typed wrapper around one database key, providing some helper functions
for interacting with it without dealing with raw bytes. And `Map`,
which allows you to store multiple unique typed objects under a prefix,
indexed by a simple or compound (e.g. `(&[u8], &[u8])`) primary key.
## Item
The usage of an [`Item`](./src/item.rs) is pretty straight-forward.
You must simply provide the proper type, as well as a database key not
used by any other item. Then it will provide you with a nice interface
to interact with such data.
If you are coming from using `Singleton`, the biggest change is that
we no longer store `Storage` inside, meaning we don't need to read and write
variants of the object, just one type. Furthermore, we use `const fn`
to create the `Item`, allowing it to be defined as a global compile-time
constant rather than a function that must be constructed each time,
which saves gas as well as typing.
Example Usage:
```rust
#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Debug)]
struct Config {
pub owner: String,
pub max_tokens: i32,
}
// note const constructor rather than 2 functions with Singleton
const CONFIG: Item<Config> = Item::new("config");
fn demo() -> StdResult<()> {
let mut store = MockStorage::new();
// may_load returns Option<T>, so None if data is missing
// load returns T and Err(StdError::NotFound{}) if data is missing
let empty = CONFIG.may_load(&store)?;
assert_eq!(None, empty);
let cfg = Config {
owner: "admin".to_string(),
max_tokens: 1234,
};
CONFIG.save(&mut store, &cfg)?;
let loaded = CONFIG.load(&store)?;
assert_eq!(cfg, loaded);
// update an item with a closure (includes read and write)
// returns the newly saved value
let output = CONFIG.update(&mut store, |mut c| -> StdResult<_> {
c.max_tokens *= 2;
Ok(c)
})?;
assert_eq!(2468, output.max_tokens);
// you can error in an update and nothing is saved
let failed = CONFIG.update(&mut store, |_| -> StdResult<_> {
Err(StdError::generic_err("failure mode"))
});
assert!(failed.is_err());
// loading data will show the first update was saved
let loaded = CONFIG.load(&store)?;
let expected = Config {
owner: "admin".to_string(),
max_tokens: 2468,
};
assert_eq!(expected, loaded);
// we can remove data as well
CONFIG.remove(&mut store);
let empty = CONFIG.may_load(&store)?;
assert_eq!(None, empty);
Ok(())
}
```
## Map
The usage of a [`Map`](./src/map.rs) is a little more complex, but
is still pretty straight-forward. You can imagine it as a storage-backed
`BTreeMap`, allowing key-value lookups with typed values. In addition,
we support not only simple binary keys (like `&[u8]`), but tuples, which are
combined. This allows us by example to store allowances as composite keys,
i.e. `(owner, spender)` to look up the balance.
Beyond direct lookups, we have a super-power not found in Ethereum -
iteration. That's right, you can list all items in a `Map`, or only
part of them. We can efficiently allow pagination over these items as
well, starting at the point the last query ended, with low gas costs.
This requires the `iterator` feature to be enabled in `cw-storage-plus`
(which automatically enables it in `cosmwasm-std` as well, and which is
enabled by default).
If you are coming from using `Bucket`, the biggest change is that
we no longer store `Storage` inside, meaning we don't need to read and write
variants of the object, just one type. Furthermore, we use `const fn`
to create the `Bucket`, allowing it to be defined as a global compile-time
constant rather than a function that must be constructed each time,
which saves gas as well as typing. In addition, the composite indexes
(tuples) are more ergonomic and expressive of intention, and the range
interface has been improved.
Here is an example with normal (simple) keys:
```rust
#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Debug, Clone)]
struct Data {
pub name: String,
pub age: i32,
}
const PEOPLE: Map<&str, Data> = Map::new("people");
fn demo() -> StdResult<()> {
let mut store = MockStorage::new();
let data = Data {
name: "John".to_string(),
age: 32,
};
// load and save with extra key argument
let empty = PEOPLE.may_load(&store, "john")?;
assert_eq!(None, empty);
PEOPLE.save(&mut store, "john", &data)?;
let loaded = PEOPLE.load(&store, "john")?;
assert_eq!(data, loaded);
// nothing on another key
let missing = PEOPLE.may_load(&store, "jack")?;
assert_eq!(None, missing);
// update function for new or existing keys
let birthday = |d: Option<Data>| -> StdResult<Data> {
match d {
Some(one) => Ok(Data {
name: one.name,
age: one.age + 1,
}),
None => Ok(Data {
name: "Newborn".to_string(),
age: 0,
}),
}
};
let old_john = PEOPLE.update(&mut store, "john", birthday)?;
assert_eq!(33, old_john.age);
assert_eq!("John", old_john.name.as_str());
let new_jack = PEOPLE.update(&mut store, "jack", birthday)?;
assert_eq!(0, new_jack.age);
assert_eq!("Newborn", new_jack.name.as_str());
// update also changes the store
assert_eq!(old_john, PEOPLE.load(&store, "john")?);
assert_eq!(new_jack, PEOPLE.load(&store, "jack")?);
// removing leaves us empty
PEOPLE.remove(&mut store, "john");
let empty = PEOPLE.may_load(&store, "john")?;
assert_eq!(None, empty);
Ok(())
}
```
### Key types
A `Map` key can be anything that implements the `PrimaryKey` trait. There are a series of implementations of
`PrimaryKey` already provided (see [keys.rs](./src/keys.rs)):
- `impl<'a> PrimaryKey<'a> for &'a [u8]`
- `impl<'a> PrimaryKey<'a> for &'a str`
- `impl<'a> PrimaryKey<'a> for Vec<u8>`
- `impl<'a> PrimaryKey<'a> for String`
- `impl<'a> PrimaryKey<'a> for Addr`
- `impl<'a, const N: usize> PrimaryKey<'a> for [u8; N]`
- `impl<'a, T: Prefixer<'a>> Prefixer<'a> for &'a T`
- `impl<'a, T: PrimaryKey<'a> + Prefixer<'a>, U: PrimaryKey<'a>> PrimaryKey<'a> for (T, U)`
- `impl<'a, T: PrimaryKey<'a> + Prefixer<'a>, U: PrimaryKey<'a> + Prefixer<'a>, V: PrimaryKey<'a>> PrimaryKey<'a> for (T, U, V)`
- `PrimaryKey` implemented for unsigned integers up to `u128`
- `PrimaryKey` implemented for signed integers up to `i128`
That means that byte and string slices, byte vectors, and strings, can be conveniently used as keys.
Moreover, some other types can be used as well, like addresses and address references, pairs, triples, and
integer types.
If the key represents an address, we suggest using `&Addr` for keys in storage, instead of `String` or string slices.
This implies doing address validation through `addr_validate` on any address passed in via a message, to ensure it's a
legitimate address, and not random text which will fail later.
`pub fn addr_validate(&self, &str) -> Addr` in `deps.api` can be used for address validation, and the returned `Addr`
can then be conveniently used as key in a `Map` or similar structure.
It's also convenient to use references (i.e. borrowed values) instead of values for keys (i.e. `&Addr` instead of `Addr`),
as that will typically save some cloning during key reading / writing.
### Composite Keys
There are times when we want to use multiple items as a key. For example, when
storing allowances based on account owner and spender. We could try to manually
concatenate them before calling, but that can lead to overlap, and is a bit
low-level for us. Also, by explicitly separating the keys, we can easily provide
helpers to do range queries over a prefix, such as "show me all allowances for
one owner" (first part of the composite key). Just like you'd expect from your
favorite database.
Here's how we use it with composite keys. Just define a tuple as a key and use that
everywhere you used a single key above.
```rust
// Note the tuple for primary key. We support one slice, or a 2 or 3-tuple.
// Adding longer tuples is possible, but unlikely to be needed.
const ALLOWANCE: Map<(&str, &str), u64> = Map::new("allow");
fn demo() -> StdResult<()> {
let mut store = MockStorage::new();
// save and load on a composite key
let empty = ALLOWANCE.may_load(&store, ("owner", "spender"))?;
assert_eq!(None, empty);
ALLOWANCE.save(&mut store, ("owner", "spender"), &777)?;
let loaded = ALLOWANCE.load(&store, ("owner", "spender"))?;
assert_eq!(777, loaded);
// doesn't appear under other key (even if a concat would be the same)
let different = ALLOWANCE.may_load(&store, ("owners", "pender")).unwrap();
assert_eq!(None, different);
// simple update
ALLOWANCE.update(&mut store, ("owner", "spender"), |v| {
Ok(v.unwrap_or_default() + 222)
})?;
let loaded = ALLOWANCE.load(&store, ("owner", "spender"))?;
assert_eq!(999, loaded);
Ok(())
}
```
### Path
Under the scenes, we create a `Path` from the `Map` when accessing a key.
`PEOPLE.load(&store, "jack") == PEOPLE.key("jack").load()`.
`Map.key()` returns a `Path`, which has the same interface as `Item`,
re-using the calculated path to this key.
For simple keys, this is just a bit less typing and a bit less gas if you
use the same key for many calls. However, for composite keys, like
`("owner", "spender")` it is **much** less typing. And highly recommended anywhere
you will use a composite key even twice:
```rust
#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Debug, Clone)]
struct Data {
pub name: String,
pub age: i32,
}
const PEOPLE: Map<&str, Data> = Map::new("people");
const ALLOWANCE: Map<(&str, &str), u64> = Map::new("allow");
fn demo() -> StdResult<()> {
let mut store = MockStorage::new();
let data = Data {
name: "John".to_string(),
age: 32,
};
// create a Path one time to use below
let john = PEOPLE.key("john");
// Use this just like an Item above
let empty = john.may_load(&store)?;
assert_eq!(None, empty);
john.save(&mut store, &data)?;
let loaded = john.load(&store)?;
assert_eq!(data, loaded);
john.remove(&mut store);
let empty = john.may_load(&store)?;
assert_eq!(None, empty);
// Same for composite keys, just use both parts in `key()`.
// Notice how much less verbose than the above example.
let allow = ALLOWANCE.key(("owner", "spender"));
allow.save(&mut store, &1234)?;
let loaded = allow.load(&store)?;
assert_eq!(1234, loaded);
allow.update(&mut store, |x| Ok(x.unwrap_or_default() * 2))?;
let loaded = allow.load(&store)?;
assert_eq!(2468, loaded);
Ok(())
}
```
### Prefix
In addition to getting one particular item out of a map, we can iterate over the map
(or a subset of the map). This let us answer questions like "show me all tokens",
and we provide some nice [`Bound`](#bound) helpers to easily allow pagination or custom ranges.
The general format is to get a `Prefix` by calling `map.prefix(k)`, where `k` is exactly
one less item than the normal key (If `map.key()` took `(&[u8], &[u8])`, then `map.prefix()` takes `&[u8]`.
If `map.key()` took `&[u8]`, `map.prefix()` takes `()`). Once we have a prefix space, we can iterate
over all items with `range(store, min, max, order)`. It supports `Order::Ascending` or `Order::Descending`.
`min` is the lower bound and `max` is the higher bound.
If the `min` and `max` bounds are `None`, `range` will return all items under the prefix. You can use `.take(n)` to
limit the results to `n` items and start doing pagination. You can also set the `min` bound to
e.g. `Bound::exclusive(last_value)` to start iterating over all items _after_ the last value. Combined with
`take`, we easily have pagination support. You can also use `Bound::inclusive(x)` when you want to include any
perfect matches.
### Bound
`Bound` is a helper to build type-safe bounds on the keys or sub-keys you want to iterate over.
It also supports a raw (`Vec<u8>`) bounds specification, for the cases you don't want or can't use typed bounds.
```rust
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
pub enum Bound<'a, K: PrimaryKey<'a>> {
Inclusive((K, PhantomData<&'a bool>)),
Exclusive((K, PhantomData<&'a bool>)),
InclusiveRaw(Vec<u8>),
ExclusiveRaw(Vec<u8>),
}
```
To better understand the API, please check the following example:
```rust
#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Debug, Clone)]
struct Data {
pub name: String,
pub age: i32,
}
const PEOPLE: Map<&str, Data> = Map::new("people");
const ALLOWANCE: Map<(&str, &str), u64> = Map::new("allow");
fn demo() -> StdResult<()> {
let mut store = MockStorage::new();
// save and load on two keys
let data = Data { name: "John".to_string(), age: 32 };
PEOPLE.save(&mut store, "john", &data)?;
let data2 = Data { name: "Jim".to_string(), age: 44 };
PEOPLE.save(&mut store, "jim", &data2)?;
// iterate over them all
let all: StdResult<Vec<_>> = PEOPLE
.range(&store, None, None, Order::Ascending)
.collect();
assert_eq!(
all?,
vec![("jim".to_vec(), data2), ("john".to_vec(), data.clone())]
);
// or just show what is after jim
let all: StdResult<Vec<_>> = PEOPLE
.range(
&store,
Some(Bound::exclusive("jim")),
None,
Order::Ascending,
)
.collect();
assert_eq!(all?, vec![("john".to_vec(), data)]);
// save and load on three keys, one under different owner
ALLOWANCE.save(&mut store, ("owner", "spender"), &1000)?;
ALLOWANCE.save(&mut store, ("owner", "spender2"), &3000)?;
ALLOWANCE.save(&mut store, ("owner2", "spender"), &5000)?;
// get all under one key
let all: StdResult<Vec<_>> = ALLOWANCE
.prefix("owner")
.range(&store, None, None, Order::Ascending)
.collect();
assert_eq!(
all?,
vec![("spender".to_vec(), 1000), ("spender2".to_vec(), 3000)]
);
// Or ranges between two items (even reverse)
let all: StdResult<Vec<_>> = ALLOWANCE
.prefix("owner")
.range(
&store,
Some(Bound::exclusive("spender")),
Some(Bound::inclusive("spender2")),
Order::Descending,
)
.collect();
assert_eq!(all?, vec![("spender2".to_vec(), 3000)]);
Ok(())
}
```
**NB**: For properly defining and using type-safe bounds over a `MultiIndex`, see [Type-safe bounds over `MultiIndex`](#type-safe-bounds-over-multiindex),
below.
## IndexedMap
Let's see one example of `IndexedMap` definition and usage, originally taken from the `cw721-base` contract.
### Definition
```rust
pub struct TokenIndexes<'a> {
pub owner: MultiIndex<'a, Addr, TokenInfo, String>,
}
impl<'a> IndexList<TokenInfo> for TokenIndexes<'a> {
fn get_indexes(&'_ self) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &'_ dyn Index<TokenInfo>> + '_> {
let v: Vec<&dyn Index<TokenInfo>> = vec![&self.owner];
Box::new(v.into_iter())
}
}
pub fn tokens<'a>() -> IndexedMap<'a, &'a str, TokenInfo, TokenIndexes<'a>> {
let indexes = TokenIndexes {
owner: MultiIndex::new(
|d: &TokenInfo| d.owner.clone(),
"tokens",
"tokens__owner",
),
};
IndexedMap::new("tokens", indexes)
}
```
Let's discuss this piece by piece:
```rust
pub struct TokenIndexes<'a> {
pub owner: MultiIndex<'a, Addr, TokenInfo, String>,
}
```
These are the index definitions. Here there's only one index, called `owner`. There could be more, as public
members of the `TokenIndexes` struct.
We see that the `owner` index is a `MultiIndex`. A multi-index can have repeated values as keys. The primary key is
used internally as the last element of the multi-index key, to disambiguate repeated index values.
Like the name implies, this is an index over tokens, by owner. Given that an owner can have multiple tokens,
we need a `MultiIndex` to be able to list / iterate over all the tokens he has.
The `TokenInfo` data will originally be stored by `token_id` (which is a string value).
You can see this in the token creation code:
```rust
tokens().update(deps.storage, &msg.token_id, |old| match old {
Some(_) => Err(ContractError::Claimed {}),
None => Ok(token),
})?;
```
(Incidentally, this is using `update` instead of `save`, to avoid overwriting an already existing token).
Given that `token_id` is a string value, we specify `String` as the last argument of the `MultiIndex` definition.
That way, the deserialization of the primary key will be done to the right type (an owned string).
**NB**: In the particular case of a `MultiIndex`, and with the latest implementation of type-safe bounds, the definition of
this last type parameter is crucial, for properly using type-safe bounds.
See [Type-safe bounds over `MultiIndex`](#type-safe-bounds-over-multiindex), below.
Then, this `TokenInfo` data will be indexed by token `owner` (which is an `Addr`). So that we can list all the tokens
an owner has. That's why the `owner` index key is `Addr`.
Other important thing here is that the key (and its components, in the case of a composite key) must implement
the `PrimaryKey` trait. You can see that `Addr` does implement `PrimaryKey`:
```rust
impl<'a> PrimaryKey<'a> for Addr {
type Prefix = ();
type SubPrefix = ();
type Suffix = Self;
type SuperSuffix = Self;
fn key(&self) -> Vec<Key> {
// this is simple, we don't add more prefixes
vec![Key::Ref(self.as_bytes())]
}
}
```
---
We can now see how it all works, taking a look at the remaining code:
```rust
impl<'a> IndexList<TokenInfo> for TokenIndexes<'a> {
fn get_indexes(&'_ self) -> Box<dyn Iterator<Item = &'_ dyn Index<TokenInfo>> + '_> {
let v: Vec<&dyn Index<TokenInfo>> = vec![&self.owner];
Box::new(v.into_iter())
}
}
```
This implements the `IndexList` trait for `TokenIndexes`.
**NB**: this code is more or less boilerplate, and needed for the internals. Do not try to customize this;
just return a list of all indexes.
Implementing this trait serves two purposes (which are really one and the same): it allows the indexes
to be queried through `get_indexes`, and, it allows `TokenIndexes` to be treated as an `IndexList`. So that
it can be passed as a parameter during `IndexedMap` construction, below:
```rust
pub fn tokens<'a>() -> IndexedMap<'a, &'a str, TokenInfo, TokenIndexes<'a>> {
let indexes = TokenIndexes {
owner: MultiIndex::new(
|d: &TokenInfo| d.owner.clone(),
"tokens",
"tokens__owner",
),
};
IndexedMap::new("tokens", indexes)
}
```
Here `tokens()` is just a helper function, that simplifies the `IndexedMap` construction for us. First the
index (es) is (are) created, and then, the `IndexedMap` is created and returned.
During index creation, we must supply an index function per index
```rust
owner: MultiIndex::new(|d: &TokenInfo| d.owner.clone(),
```
which is the one that will take the value of the original map and create the index key from it.
Of course, this requires that the elements required for the index key are present in the value.
Besides the index function, we must also supply the namespace of the pk, and the one for the new index.
---
After that, we just create and return the `IndexedMap`:
```rust
IndexedMap::new("tokens", indexes)
```
Here of course, the namespace of the pk must match the one used during index(es) creation. And, we pass our
`TokenIndexes` (as an `IndexList`-type parameter) as second argument. Connecting in this way the underlying `Map`
for the pk, with the defined indexes.
So, `IndexedMap` (and the other `Indexed*` types) is just a wrapper / extension around `Map`, that provides
a number of index functions and namespaces to create indexes over the original `Map` data. It also implements
calling these index functions during value storage / update / removal, so that you can forget about it,
and just use the indexed data.
### Usage
An example of use, where `owner` is a `String` value passed as a parameter, and `start_after` and `limit` optionally
define the pagination range:
Notice this uses `prefix()`, explained above in the `Map` section.
```rust
let limit = limit.unwrap_or(DEFAULT_LIMIT).min(MAX_LIMIT) as usize;
let start = start_after.map(Bound::exclusive);
let owner_addr = deps.api.addr_validate(&owner)?;
let res: Result<Vec<_>, _> = tokens()
.idx
.owner
.prefix(owner_addr)
.range(deps.storage, start, None, Order::Ascending)
.take(limit)
.collect();
let tokens = res?;
```
Now `tokens` contains `(token_id, TokenInfo)` pairs for the given `owner`.
The pk values are `Vec<u8>` in the case of `range_raw()`, but will be deserialized to the proper type using
`range()`; provided that the pk deserialization type (`String`, in this case) is correctly specified
in the `MultiIndex` definition (see [Index keys deserialization](#index-keys-deserialization),
below).
Another example that is similar, but returning only the (raw) `token_id`s, using the `keys_raw()` method:
```rust
let pks: Vec<_> = tokens()
.idx
.owner
.prefix(owner_addr)
.keys_raw(
deps.storage,
start,
None,
Order::Ascending,
)
.take(limit)
.collect();
```
Now `pks` contains `token_id` values (as raw `Vec<u8>`s) for the given `owner`. By using `keys` instead,
a deserialized key can be obtained, as detailed in the next section.
### Index keys deserialization
For `UniqueIndex` and `MultiIndex`, the primary key (`PK`) type needs to be specified, in order to deserialize
the primary key to it.
This `PK` type specification is also important for `MultiIndex` type-safe bounds, as the primary key
is part of the multi-index key. See next section, [Type-safe bounds over MultiIndex](#type-safe-bounds-over-multiindex).
**NB**: This specification is still a manual (and therefore error-prone) process / setup, that will (if possible)
be automated in the future (https://github.com/CosmWasm/cw-plus/issues/531).
### Type-safe bounds over MultiIndex
In the particular case of `MultiIndex`, the primary key (`PK`) type parameter also defines the type of the (partial) bounds over
the index key (the part that corresponds to the primary key, that is).
So, to correctly use type-safe bounds over multi-indexes ranges, it is fundamental for this `PK` type
to be correctly defined, so that it matches the primary key type, or its (typically owned) deserialization variant.
## Deque
The usage of a [`Deque`](./src/deque.rs) is pretty straight-forward.
Conceptually it works like a storage-backed version of Rust std's `Deque` and can be used as a queue or stack.
It allows you to push and pop elements on both ends and also read the first or last element without mutating the deque.
You can also read a specific index directly.
Example Usage:
```rust
#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Debug, Clone)]
struct Data {
pub name: String,
pub age: i32,
}
const DATA: Deque<Data> = Deque::new("data");
fn demo() -> StdResult<()> {
let mut store = MockStorage::new();
// read methods return a wrapped Option<T>, so None if the deque is empty
let empty = DATA.front(&store)?;
assert_eq!(None, empty);
// some example entries
let p1 = Data {
name: "admin".to_string(),
age: 1234,
};
let p2 = Data {
name: "user".to_string(),
age: 123,
};
// use it like a queue by pushing and popping at opposite ends
DATA.push_back(&mut store, &p1)?;
DATA.push_back(&mut store, &p2)?;
let admin = DATA.pop_front(&mut store)?;
assert_eq!(admin.as_ref(), Some(&p1));
let user = DATA.pop_front(&mut store)?;
assert_eq!(user.as_ref(), Some(&p2));
// or push and pop at the same end to use it as a stack
DATA.push_back(&mut store, &p1)?;
DATA.push_back(&mut store, &p2)?;
let user = DATA.pop_back(&mut store)?;
assert_eq!(user.as_ref(), Some(&p2));
let admin = DATA.pop_back(&mut store)?;
assert_eq!(admin.as_ref(), Some(&p1));
// you can also iterate over it
DATA.push_front(&mut store, &p1)?;
DATA.push_front(&mut store, &p2)?;
let all: StdResult<Vec<_>> = DATA.iter(&store)?.collect();
assert_eq!(all?, [p2, p1]);
// or access an index directly
assert_eq!(DATA.get(&store, 0)?, Some(p2));
assert_eq!(DATA.get(&store, 1)?, Some(p1));
assert_eq!(DATA.get(&store, 3)?, None);
Ok(())
}
```
## License
Licensed under [Apache License, Version 2.0](https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0)
(see [LICENSE][apache-url] and [NOTICE][notice-url]).
Any contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in this crate by you,
shall be licensed as above, without any additional terms or conditions.