_synta/certificate/

cert.rs

//! Python binding for [`PyCertificate`] (X.509 Certificate).

use std::sync::OnceLock;

use pyo3::prelude::*;
use pyo3::types::{PyBytes, PyList, PyString};
use pyo3::PyClass;

use synta::traits::Encode;
use synta::{Decoder, Encoding};
use synta_certificate::{Certificate, PolicyQualifierInfo, Time};

use crate::types::PyObjectIdentifier;

use super::oid_from_pyany;

/// Re-encode an ASN.1 `Element` to DER bytes, returning `None` for a missing
/// optional field.  Used by the algorithm-parameter getters.
fn encode_element_opt<'py>(
    py: Python<'py>,
    elem: Option<&synta::Element<'_>>,
) -> PyResult<Option<Bound<'py, PyBytes>>> {
    match elem {
        None => Ok(None),
        Some(e) => {
            let mut encoder = synta::Encoder::new(Encoding::Der);
            e.encode(&mut encoder)
                .map_err(|err| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{err}")))?;
            let bytes = encoder
                .finish()
                .map_err(|err| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{err}")))?;
            Ok(Some(PyBytes::new(py, &bytes)))
        }
    }
}

/// Decode a raw DER Name SEQUENCE and format it as an RFC 4514-style string.
fn decode_name_debug(raw: &[u8]) -> String {
    synta_certificate::name::format_dn(raw)
}

/// Shared implementation for every `from_pem` static method.
///
/// Decodes all PEM blocks in `data` and constructs a Python object for each
/// by calling `make_obj(py, der_bytes)`.  The closure is responsible for
/// parsing the DER bytes and wrapping the result as a `Bound<'py, PyAny>`;
/// this lets the caller use concrete types (with their full `Py::new` bounds)
/// without any generic `PyClass` constraint here.
///
/// Returns a single object for one block, a `list` for multiple blocks, and
/// raises `ValueError` when no block is found.
pub(super) fn pem_blocks_to_pyobject<'py, F>(
    py: Python<'py>,
    data: &[u8],
    make_obj: F,
) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>>
where
    F: for<'a> Fn(Python<'py>, Bound<'a, PyBytes>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>>,
{
    let blocks = synta_certificate::pem_blocks(data);
    match blocks.len() {
        0 => Err(pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(
            "no PEM block found in input",
        )),
        1 => make_obj(py, PyBytes::new(py, &blocks[0].1)),
        _ => {
            let list = PyList::empty(py);
            for (_, der) in &blocks {
                list.append(make_obj(py, PyBytes::new(py, der))?)?;
            }
            Ok(list.into_any())
        }
    }
}

/// Shared implementation for every `to_pem` static method.
///
/// Accepts either a single Python object of type `T` or a `list` of them,
/// serialises each to a PEM block labelled `label`, and returns the
/// concatenated bytes.  The `get_der` closure extracts the raw DER bytes from
/// a Rust reference to `T`.
///
/// Using a closure (rather than a trait method) avoids requiring `T: PyClass`
/// with internal PyO3 initialiser bounds while still letting the caller use
/// concrete types.
pub(super) fn pyobject_to_pem<'py, T, D>(
    py: Python<'py>,
    label: &str,
    obj_or_list: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
    get_der: D,
) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>>
where
    T: PyClass,
    D: for<'r> Fn(&'r T) -> &'r [u8],
{
    let mut pem: Vec<u8> = Vec::new();
    if let Ok(list) = obj_or_list.cast::<PyList>() {
        for item in list.iter() {
            let bound_t = item.cast::<T>().map_err(|_| {
                pyo3::exceptions::PyTypeError::new_err(format!(
                    "list items must be {label} objects"
                ))
            })?;
            let borrow = bound_t.borrow();
            pem.extend_from_slice(&synta_certificate::der_to_pem(label, get_der(&borrow)));
        }
    } else {
        let bound_t = obj_or_list.cast::<T>().map_err(|_| {
            pyo3::exceptions::PyTypeError::new_err(format!(
                "expected a {label} object or list[{label}]"
            ))
        })?;
        let borrow = bound_t.borrow();
        pem.extend_from_slice(&synta_certificate::der_to_pem(label, get_der(&borrow)));
    }
    Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &pem))
}

/// A single policy qualifier from the CertificatePolicies extension.
///
/// Corresponds to `PolicyQualifierInfo` in RFC 5280:
///
/// ```asn1
/// PolicyQualifierInfo ::= SEQUENCE {
///     policyQualifierId  PolicyQualifierId,
///     qualifier          ANY DEFINED BY policyQualifierId }
/// ```
///
/// The ``qualifier_value`` bytes are the complete DER TLV of the ``qualifier``
/// field.  For ``id-qt-cps`` (OID ``1.3.6.1.5.5.7.2.1``) this encodes an
/// IA5String containing the CPS URI.  For ``id-qt-unotice``
/// (``1.3.6.1.5.5.7.2.2``) it encodes a ``UserNotice`` SEQUENCE.
#[pyclass(frozen, name = "PolicyQualifier", module = "synta")]
pub struct PyPolicyQualifier {
    pub qualifier_oid: synta::ObjectIdentifier,
    pub qualifier_value: Vec<u8>,
}

#[pymethods]
impl PyPolicyQualifier {
    /// OID identifying the qualifier type.
    ///
    /// Common values:
    ///
    /// - ``1.3.6.1.5.5.7.2.1`` — CPS pointer (URI string)
    /// - ``1.3.6.1.5.5.7.2.2`` — user notice
    #[getter]
    fn qualifier_oid<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyObjectIdentifier>> {
        Py::new(py, PyObjectIdentifier::from_oid(self.qualifier_oid.clone()))
            .map(|p| p.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Raw DER bytes of the qualifier value (tag + length + value).
    ///
    /// For a CPS qualifier (OID ``1.3.6.1.5.5.7.2.1``) this is an IA5String
    /// encoding of the CPS URI.  Decode with:
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// synta.Decoder(data, synta.Encoding.DER).decode_ia5_string()
    /// ```
    #[getter]
    fn qualifier_value<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> Bound<'py, PyBytes> {
        PyBytes::new(py, &self.qualifier_value)
    }

    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
        format!("PolicyQualifier(qualifier_oid={})", self.qualifier_oid)
    }
}

/// A single ``PolicyInformation`` entry from the CertificatePolicies extension.
///
/// Corresponds to ``PolicyInformation`` in RFC 5280:
///
/// ```asn1
/// PolicyInformation ::= SEQUENCE {
///     policyIdentifier   CertPolicyId,
///     policyQualifiers   PolicyQualifiers OPTIONAL }
/// ```
#[pyclass(frozen, name = "PolicyInformation", module = "synta")]
pub struct PyPolicyInformation {
    pub policy_oid: synta::ObjectIdentifier,
    pub qualifiers: Vec<(synta::ObjectIdentifier, Vec<u8>)>,
}

#[pymethods]
impl PyPolicyInformation {
    /// The certificate policy OID.
    #[getter]
    fn policy_oid<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyObjectIdentifier>> {
        Py::new(py, PyObjectIdentifier::from_oid(self.policy_oid.clone())).map(|p| p.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// List of :class:`PolicyQualifier` entries (empty when ``policyQualifiers`` is absent).
    #[getter]
    fn qualifiers<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyList>> {
        let list = PyList::empty(py);
        for (qoid, qval) in &self.qualifiers {
            let pq = Py::new(
                py,
                PyPolicyQualifier {
                    qualifier_oid: qoid.clone(),
                    qualifier_value: qval.clone(),
                },
            )?;
            list.append(pq.into_bound(py))?;
        }
        Ok(list)
    }

    fn __repr__(&self) -> String {
        format!("PolicyInformation(policy_oid={})", self.policy_oid)
    }
}

/// X.509 Certificate accessible from Python.
///
/// Example (inside a Python extension that called `register_module`):
///
/// ```python
/// cert = Certificate.from_der(open("cert.der", "rb").read())
/// print(cert.subject)
/// ```
#[pyclass(frozen, name = "Certificate")]
pub struct PyCertificate {
    // Holds a strong reference to the Python bytes object that backs the
    // DER data.  The CPython refcount prevents the underlying bytes buffer
    // from being freed for the full lifetime of this struct.  After the
    // struct is collected by Python's GC, `_data` drops (in Rust's
    // declaration order) and decrements the refcount; by that point no
    // Rust code can hold a borrow of this struct, so no read of `raw`
    // can occur through `&self` after drop begins.
    pub(super) _data: Py<PyBytes>,
    // Raw slice pointing into `_data`'s buffer.  SAFETY: valid as long as
    // `_data` is alive; CPython bytes objects have a fixed-address buffer
    // that is never relocated.  Stored here so the OnceLock init closure in
    // `cert()` can access the bytes without requiring a GIL token.
    pub(super) raw: &'static [u8],
    // Full decoded certificate, heap-allocated and initialised lazily on first
    // field access.  `Box` keeps the 568-byte `Certificate` off the struct so
    // that `PyCertificate` stays within CPython's 512-byte `pymalloc`
    // threshold (after adding the Python object header).  Allocating through
    // pymalloc instead of the system allocator is roughly 3× faster, which is
    // measurable at parse-only speeds.  The full recursive decode is deferred
    // so that parse-only workloads pay only the shallow envelope-scan cost.
    inner: OnceLock<Box<Certificate<'static>>>,
    // Byte range within `_data` covering the complete TBSCertificate TLV.
    tbs_range: std::ops::Range<usize>,
    // Lazily-computed Python objects.  Each field is initialised on first
    // Python access and returned via clone_ref on every subsequent call,
    // avoiding repeated allocation and PyO3 string construction.
    issuer_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyString>>,
    subject_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyString>>,
    signature_algorithm_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyString>>,
    not_before_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyString>>,
    not_after_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyString>>,
    public_key_algorithm_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyString>>,
    serial_number_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyAny>>,
    signature_value_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyBytes>>,
    public_key_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyBytes>>,
    tbs_bytes_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyBytes>>,
    signature_algorithm_oid_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyObjectIdentifier>>,
    public_key_algorithm_oid_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyObjectIdentifier>>,
    signature_algorithm_der_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyBytes>>,
    signature_algorithm_params_cache: OnceLock<Option<Py<PyBytes>>>,
    public_key_algorithm_params_cache: OnceLock<Option<Py<PyBytes>>>,
    extensions_der_cache: OnceLock<Option<Py<PyBytes>>>,
    issuer_raw_der_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyBytes>>,
    subject_raw_der_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyBytes>>,
    not_before_utc_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyAny>>,
    not_after_utc_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyAny>>,
    spki_der_cache: OnceLock<Py<PyBytes>>,
}

impl PyCertificate {
    /// Return the fully-decoded certificate, triggering a full recursive
    /// `Certificate::decode()` on the first call.
    ///
    /// The result is cached in `inner` so subsequent calls are a single
    /// atomic load.  Returns `Err(PyValueError)` if the full decode fails
    /// (e.g. malformed inner content that passed the shallow envelope scan
    /// in `from_der`).  Unlike a panic, this surfaces as a catchable Python
    /// `ValueError` rather than an uncatchable `PanicException`.
    pub(super) fn cert(&self) -> PyResult<&Certificate<'static>> {
        if let Some(v) = self.inner.get() {
            return Ok(v.as_ref());
        }
        let mut decoder = Decoder::new(self.raw, Encoding::Der);
        let decoded = decoder.decode().map_err(|e| {
            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("Certificate DER decode failed: {e}"))
        })?;
        let _ = self.inner.set(Box::new(decoded));
        Ok(self.inner.get().unwrap().as_ref())
    }
}

#[pymethods]
impl PyCertificate {
    /// Parse a DER-encoded X.509 certificate.
    #[staticmethod]
    fn from_der(py: Python<'_>, data: Bound<'_, PyBytes>) -> PyResult<Self> {
        // Store the Python bytes object directly — no copy of the DER data.
        let py_bytes = data.unbind();

        // SAFETY: `py_bytes` holds a strong reference (Py<PyBytes>) that
        // keeps the Python bytes object alive for the lifetime of this struct.
        // CPython's bytes objects have a fixed-address, non-relocating payload
        // buffer (CPython has no moving GC for bytes objects).  The slice
        // lifetime is extended to 'static; the actual safety invariants are:
        //   (1) All reads of `raw` go through `&self` (a borrow of the struct).
        //       No borrow of the struct can outlive the struct, so `raw` is
        //       never read after the struct begins dropping.
        //   (2) `raw: &'static [u8]` has no destructor (it is a fat pointer
        //       with no heap allocation), so Rust dropping `_data` before `raw`
        //       (fields drop in declaration order) does not cause a
        //       use-after-free during the drop sequence itself.
        //   (3) `inner` contains `Certificate<'static>` references into the
        //       buffer; dropping `Box<Certificate<'static>>` frees the box
        //       allocation but does not read through the contained &'static
        //       slices (borrows have no destructors in Rust).
        // CPython-only: this pattern does not hold for PyPy or GraalPy,
        // which may relocate or compact heap objects.
        let raw: &'static [u8] = unsafe {
            let s = py_bytes.bind(py).as_bytes();
            std::slice::from_raw_parts(s.as_ptr(), s.len())
        };

        // Shallow structural scan: validate the Certificate SEQUENCE envelope
        // and locate the TBSCertificate TLV range.  This is ~4 decoder
        // operations — roughly 10× faster than a full Certificate::decode().
        // The full decode is deferred to the first field access via `cert()`.
        //
        // Certificate ::= SEQUENCE {
        //     tbsCertificate   TBSCertificate,   -- child 0: SEQUENCE
        //     signatureAlgorithm AlgorithmIdentifier, -- child 1: SEQUENCE
        //     signature        BIT STRING            -- child 2
        // }
        let tbs_range = {
            let mut d = Decoder::new(raw, Encoding::Der);
            // Outer Certificate SEQUENCE tag + length.
            d.read_tag()
                .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;
            d.read_length()
                .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;
            // TBSCertificate: record the full TLV range (tag + length + content).
            let tbs_start = d.position();
            d.read_tag()
                .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;
            let tbs_len = d
                .read_length()
                .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;
            let tbs_content_len = tbs_len
                .definite()
                .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;
            tbs_start..(d.position() + tbs_content_len)
        };

        Ok(Self {
            _data: py_bytes,
            raw,
            inner: OnceLock::new(),
            tbs_range,
            issuer_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            subject_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            signature_algorithm_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            not_before_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            not_after_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            public_key_algorithm_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            serial_number_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            signature_value_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            public_key_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            tbs_bytes_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            signature_algorithm_oid_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            public_key_algorithm_oid_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            signature_algorithm_der_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            signature_algorithm_params_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            public_key_algorithm_params_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            extensions_der_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            issuer_raw_der_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            subject_raw_der_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            not_before_utc_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            not_after_utc_cache: OnceLock::new(),
            spki_der_cache: OnceLock::new(),
        })
    }

    /// Parse a DER-encoded X.509 certificate and perform a full RFC 5280 decode immediately.
    ///
    /// Unlike :meth:`from_der`, which performs only a shallow 4-operation
    /// envelope scan and defers the full :class:`Certificate` decode to the
    /// first field access, this method triggers the complete recursive
    /// ``Certificate::decode()`` at construction time.
    ///
    /// Use this when you need all fields to be available without any
    /// lazy-decode latency on the first getter call, or when benchmarking the
    /// true full-parse cost that is comparable to Criterion's ``rust_typed``
    /// numbers.
    ///
    /// ```python
    /// # Full parse happens here — no deferred work on first field access.
    /// cert = Certificate.full_from_der(der)
    /// print(cert.issuer)   # warm path only
    /// ```
    #[staticmethod]
    fn full_from_der(py: Python<'_>, data: Bound<'_, PyBytes>) -> PyResult<Self> {
        let cert = Self::from_der(py, data)?;
        // Prime the OnceLock: runs the full Certificate::decode() now.
        cert.cert()?;
        Ok(cert)
    }

    /// Parse a PEM-encoded X.509 certificate.
    ///
    /// Strips the ``-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----`` / ``-----END CERTIFICATE-----``
    /// boundary lines, decodes the base64 body, and calls :meth:`from_der`.
    /// No external dependencies are required — the decoder is implemented in
    /// pure Rust inside ``synta-certificate``.
    ///
    /// Returns a single :class:`Certificate` when the input contains exactly
    /// one PEM block.  When multiple blocks are present (e.g. a certificate
    /// chain file), returns a :class:`list` of :class:`Certificate` objects in
    /// the order they appear.  Raises :exc:`ValueError` if no PEM block is
    /// found.
    ///
    /// ```python
    /// # Single certificate — returns Certificate directly.
    /// cert = Certificate.from_pem(open("cert.pem", "rb").read())
    /// print(cert.subject)
    ///
    /// # Certificate chain — returns list[Certificate].
    /// chain = Certificate.from_pem(open("chain.pem", "rb").read())
    /// for cert in chain:
    ///     print(cert.subject)
    /// ```
    #[staticmethod]
    fn from_pem<'py>(py: Python<'py>, data: Bound<'_, PyBytes>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
        pem_blocks_to_pyobject(py, data.as_bytes(), |py, bytes| {
            let obj = Self::from_der(py, bytes)?;
            Ok(Py::new(py, obj)?.into_bound(py).into_any())
        })
    }

    /// Convert to a ``cryptography.x509.Certificate`` (PyCA) object.
    ///
    /// Passes the original DER bytes directly to
    /// ``cryptography.x509.load_der_x509_certificate``; no re-encoding is
    /// performed.  Requires the ``cryptography`` package to be installed.
    ///
    /// ```python
    /// synta_cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// pyca_cert  = synta_cert.to_pyca()
    /// # Full cryptographic operations are now available via PyCA:
    /// pyca_cert.public_key().verify(signature, message, ...)
    /// ```
    fn to_pyca<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
        let m = py.import("cryptography.x509").map_err(|_| {
            pyo3::exceptions::PyImportError::new_err(
                "the 'cryptography' package is required; install it with: pip install cryptography",
            )
        })?;
        m.call_method1(
            "load_der_x509_certificate",
            (self._data.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py),),
        )
    }

    /// Construct a ``Certificate`` from a ``cryptography.x509.Certificate``.
    ///
    /// Serialises the PyCA certificate to DER via
    /// ``cert.public_bytes(Encoding.DER)`` and parses the result with
    /// :meth:`from_der`.  Requires the ``cryptography`` package to be
    /// installed.
    ///
    /// **Fast path** — if the object exposes a ``_synta_der_bytes`` attribute
    /// whose value is a ``bytes`` object, that buffer is used directly and
    /// the ``public_bytes()`` call is skipped entirely.  Wrapper classes that
    /// already hold the raw DER (e.g. an ``IPACertificate`` loaded from LDAP)
    /// can opt in by setting the attribute at construction time:
    ///
    /// ```python
    /// class IPACertificate:
    ///     def __init__(self, der: bytes):
    ///         self._synta_der_bytes = der          # enables fast path
    ///         self._pyca = x509.load_der_x509_certificate(der)
    ///
    /// # Zero re-encoding cost — DER is read from _synta_der_bytes directly:
    /// synta_cert = synta.Certificate.from_pyca(ipa_cert)
    /// ```
    ///
    /// Without the attribute the standard path is used:
    ///
    /// ```python
    /// pyca_cert  = cryptography.x509.load_pem_x509_certificate(pem)
    /// synta_cert = synta.Certificate.from_pyca(pyca_cert)
    /// ```
    #[staticmethod]
    fn from_pyca(py: Python<'_>, pyca_cert: Bound<'_, PyAny>) -> PyResult<Self> {
        // Optional fast path: if the caller has cached raw DER bytes on the
        // object under the `_synta_der_bytes` attribute, use that directly to
        // avoid the re-encoding cost of `public_bytes(Encoding.DER)`.  This
        // lets wrappers like FreeIPA's `IPACertificate` opt in by setting
        // `self._synta_der_bytes = der` at construction time.
        if let Ok(attr) = pyca_cert.getattr("_synta_der_bytes") {
            if let Ok(der_bytes) = attr.cast_into::<PyBytes>() {
                return Self::from_der(py, der_bytes);
            }
        }

        let ser = py
            .import("cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization")
            .map_err(|_| {
                pyo3::exceptions::PyImportError::new_err(
                    "the 'cryptography' package is required; install it with: pip install cryptography",
                )
            })?;
        let der_bytes: Bound<'_, PyBytes> = pyca_cert
            .call_method1("public_bytes", (ser.getattr("Encoding")?.getattr("DER")?,))?
            .cast_into()?;
        Self::from_der(py, der_bytes)
    }

    /// Serialize one certificate or a list of certificates to PEM format.
    ///
    /// The mirror of :meth:`from_pem`: accepts either a single
    /// :class:`Certificate` or a :class:`list` of them, and returns a
    /// :class:`bytes` value containing one or more
    /// ``-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----`` blocks concatenated in order.
    ///
    /// ```python
    /// # Single certificate:
    /// pem = Certificate.to_pem(cert)
    /// open("cert.pem", "wb").write(pem)
    ///
    /// # Certificate chain:
    /// pem = Certificate.to_pem([leaf, intermediate, root])
    /// open("chain.pem", "wb").write(pem)
    /// ```
    #[staticmethod]
    fn to_pem<'py>(
        py: Python<'py>,
        obj_or_list: Bound<'_, PyAny>,
    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
        pyobject_to_pem::<Self, _>(py, "CERTIFICATE", &obj_or_list, |c| c.raw)
    }

    /// Serial number as a Python int.
    ///
    /// Returns a native Python `int` regardless of size (X.509 serials can be
    /// up to 20 bytes / 160 bits per RFC 5280).  The Python object is created
    /// once and cached; subsequent accesses return a reference to the same object.
    #[getter]
    fn serial_number<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
        // `get_or_try_init` is not stable on `OnceLock`, so build the value
        // outside the lock if the cache is empty, then store it.
        if let Some(cached) = self.serial_number_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let serial = &self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.serial_number;
        let py_int: Py<PyAny> = if let Ok(v) = serial.as_u64() {
            // Fast path: fits in u64 (covers traditional short serials).
            // Use unsigned to match RFC 5280 §4.1.2.2 (serials are positive).
            v.into_pyobject(py)?.into_any().unbind()
        } else if let Ok(v) = serial.as_u128() {
            // Fits in u128 after stripping any DER leading 0x00 byte.
            // Covers 128-bit RSNv3 random serials correctly encoded with a
            // leading 0x00 (17 bytes total) and 127-bit serials (16 bytes).
            v.into_pyobject(py)?.into_any().unbind()
        } else if let Ok(v) = serial.as_i64() {
            // Fallback for small negative serials (technically invalid per
            // RFC 5280 but be lenient when decoding).
            v.into_pyobject(py)?.into_any().unbind()
        } else if let Ok(v) = serial.as_i128() {
            // Fallback: 16-byte signed value.
            v.into_pyobject(py)?.into_any().unbind()
        } else {
            // Large serial (17–20 bytes): call int.from_bytes() directly.
            // Using call_method avoids the parse+compile overhead of py.eval()
            // on every cold-path invocation.  `signed` is keyword-only in
            // Python's int.from_bytes signature, so it must go in kwargs.
            // Use signed=False: RFC 5280 §4.1.2.2 requires positive serials,
            // and a leading 0x00 in correctly-encoded values is already
            // stripped before reaching this branch.
            let bytes_obj = PyBytes::new(py, serial.as_bytes());
            let kwargs = pyo3::types::PyDict::new(py);
            kwargs.set_item(pyo3::intern!(py, "signed"), false)?;
            py.get_type::<pyo3::types::PyInt>()
                .call_method(
                    pyo3::intern!(py, "from_bytes"),
                    (bytes_obj, pyo3::intern!(py, "big")),
                    Some(&kwargs),
                )
                .map(|r| r.unbind())?
        };
        // Ignore a racing writer; both produce the same value.
        let _ = self.serial_number_cache.set(py_int.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_int.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Issuer distinguished name as a string.
    #[getter]
    fn issuer<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyString>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.issuer_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let s = decode_name_debug(self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.issuer.as_bytes());
        let py_str = PyString::new(py, &s).unbind();
        let _ = self.issuer_cache.set(py_str.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_str.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Subject distinguished name as a string.
    #[getter]
    fn subject<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyString>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.subject_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let s = decode_name_debug(self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.subject.as_bytes());
        let py_str = PyString::new(py, &s).unbind();
        let _ = self.subject_cache.set(py_str.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_str.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Signature algorithm name (e.g. "RSA", "ECDSA", "Ed25519", "ML-DSA-65"),
    /// or the dotted OID notation for unrecognized algorithms.
    #[getter]
    fn signature_algorithm<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyString>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.signature_algorithm_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let oid = &self.cert()?.signature_algorithm.algorithm;
        let name = synta_certificate::identify_signature_algorithm(oid);
        let s = if name != "Other" {
            name.to_string()
        } else {
            oid.to_string()
        };
        let py_str = PyString::new(py, &s).unbind();
        let _ = self.signature_algorithm_cache.set(py_str.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_str.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Raw signature bytes.
    ///
    /// The `bytes` object is created once on first access and the same Python
    /// object is returned (by reference) on every subsequent call,
    /// avoiding repeated allocation and PyO3 string construction.
    #[getter]
    fn signature_value<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.signature_value_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let py_bytes = PyBytes::new(py, self.cert()?.signature_value.as_bytes()).unbind();
        let _ = self.signature_value_cache.set(py_bytes.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_bytes.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// notBefore time as a string.
    #[getter]
    fn not_before<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyString>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.not_before_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let s = match &self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.validity.not_before {
            Time::UtcTime(t) => t.to_string(),
            Time::GeneralTime(t) => t.to_string(),
        };
        let py_str = PyString::new(py, &s).unbind();
        let _ = self.not_before_cache.set(py_str.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_str.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// notAfter time as a string.
    #[getter]
    fn not_after<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyString>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.not_after_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let s = match &self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.validity.not_after {
            Time::UtcTime(t) => t.to_string(),
            Time::GeneralTime(t) => t.to_string(),
        };
        let py_str = PyString::new(py, &s).unbind();
        let _ = self.not_after_cache.set(py_str.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_str.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Subject public-key algorithm name (e.g. "RSA", "ECDSA", "Ed25519", "ML-DSA-65"),
    /// or the dotted OID notation for unrecognized algorithms.
    #[getter]
    fn public_key_algorithm<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyString>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.public_key_algorithm_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let oid = &self
            .cert()?
            .tbs_certificate
            .subject_public_key_info
            .algorithm
            .algorithm;
        let s = synta_certificate::identify_public_key_algorithm(oid)
            .map(|s| s.to_string())
            .unwrap_or_else(|| oid.to_string());
        let py_str = PyString::new(py, &s).unbind();
        let _ = self.public_key_algorithm_cache.set(py_str.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_str.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Raw subject public-key bytes.
    ///
    /// The `bytes` object is created once on first access and the same Python
    /// object is returned (by reference) on every subsequent call,
    /// avoiding repeated allocation and PyO3 string construction.
    #[getter]
    fn public_key<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.public_key_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let py_bytes = PyBytes::new(
            py,
            self.cert()?
                .tbs_certificate
                .subject_public_key_info
                .subject_public_key
                .as_bytes(),
        )
        .unbind();
        let _ = self.public_key_cache.set(py_bytes.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_bytes.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Version field (0 = v1, 1 = v2, 2 = v3), or None if absent.
    #[getter]
    fn version(&self) -> PyResult<Option<i64>> {
        Ok(self
            .cert()?
            .tbs_certificate
            .version
            .as_ref()
            .and_then(|v| v.as_i64().ok()))
    }

    /// Complete DER encoding of this certificate (the original bytes passed to
    /// ``from_der``).
    fn to_der<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> Bound<'py, PyBytes> {
        self._data.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py)
    }

    /// Raw DER bytes of the TBSCertificate structure (the bytes that were
    /// signed by the issuer's key).
    #[getter]
    fn tbs_bytes<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> Bound<'py, PyBytes> {
        self.tbs_bytes_cache
            .get_or_init(|| {
                let data = self._data.bind(py).as_bytes();
                PyBytes::new(py, &data[self.tbs_range.clone()]).unbind()
            })
            .clone_ref(py)
            .into_bound(py)
    }

    /// OID of the signature algorithm
    /// (e.g. ``ObjectIdentifier("1.2.840.113549.1.1.11")`` for sha256WithRSAEncryption).
    ///
    /// Unlike ``signature_algorithm``, this always returns the machine-readable
    /// OID, even for algorithms that synta does not recognise by name.
    #[getter]
    fn signature_algorithm_oid<'py>(
        &self,
        py: Python<'py>,
    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyObjectIdentifier>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.signature_algorithm_oid_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let obj = Py::new(
            py,
            PyObjectIdentifier::from_oid(self.cert()?.signature_algorithm.algorithm.clone()),
        )?;
        let _ = self.signature_algorithm_oid_cache.set(obj.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(obj.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Raw DER bytes of the signature algorithm parameters, or ``None`` if
    /// the AlgorithmIdentifier has no parameters field (e.g. Ed25519).
    #[getter]
    fn signature_algorithm_params<'py>(
        &self,
        py: Python<'py>,
    ) -> PyResult<Option<Bound<'py, PyBytes>>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.signature_algorithm_params_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.as_ref().map(|b| b.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py)));
        }
        let computed =
            encode_element_opt(py, self.cert()?.signature_algorithm.parameters.as_ref())?;
        let to_store = computed.as_ref().map(|b| b.as_unbound().clone_ref(py));
        let _ = self.signature_algorithm_params_cache.set(to_store);
        Ok(computed)
    }

    /// DER-encoded ``AlgorithmIdentifier`` SEQUENCE from the certificate's outer
    /// ``signatureAlgorithm`` field.
    ///
    /// This is the raw DER form of the field — suitable for passing directly to
    /// :meth:`PublicKey.verify_certificate_signature` without any re-encoding.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// pub = synta.PublicKey.from_der(issuer_cert.public_key)
    /// pub.verify_certificate_signature(
    ///     cert.tbs_certificate_der,
    ///     cert.signature_algorithm_der,
    ///     cert.signature_value,
    /// )
    /// ```
    #[getter]
    fn signature_algorithm_der<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.signature_algorithm_der_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let ranges = synta_certificate::cert_byte_ranges(self.raw).ok_or_else(|| {
            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err("certificate DER structure is invalid")
        })?;
        let py_bytes = PyBytes::new(py, &self.raw[ranges.signature_algorithm]).unbind();
        let _ = self
            .signature_algorithm_der_cache
            .set(py_bytes.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_bytes.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// OID of the subject public-key algorithm
    /// (e.g. ``ObjectIdentifier("1.2.840.10045.2.1")`` for id-ecPublicKey).
    #[getter]
    fn public_key_algorithm_oid<'py>(
        &self,
        py: Python<'py>,
    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyObjectIdentifier>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.public_key_algorithm_oid_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let obj = Py::new(
            py,
            PyObjectIdentifier::from_oid(
                self.cert()?
                    .tbs_certificate
                    .subject_public_key_info
                    .algorithm
                    .algorithm
                    .clone(),
            ),
        )?;
        let _ = self.public_key_algorithm_oid_cache.set(obj.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(obj.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Raw DER bytes of the public-key algorithm parameters, or ``None``.
    ///
    /// For EC keys this is an OID naming the curve (e.g. secp256r1).
    /// For RSA and Ed25519 this is typically ``None`` or a NULL element.
    #[getter]
    fn public_key_algorithm_params<'py>(
        &self,
        py: Python<'py>,
    ) -> PyResult<Option<Bound<'py, PyBytes>>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.public_key_algorithm_params_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.as_ref().map(|b| b.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py)));
        }
        let computed = encode_element_opt(
            py,
            self.cert()?
                .tbs_certificate
                .subject_public_key_info
                .algorithm
                .parameters
                .as_ref(),
        )?;
        let to_store = computed.as_ref().map(|b| b.as_unbound().clone_ref(py));
        let _ = self.public_key_algorithm_params_cache.set(to_store);
        Ok(computed)
    }

    /// Raw DER bytes of the extensions SEQUENCE OF, or ``None`` for v1/v2
    /// certificates that carry no extensions.
    ///
    /// The returned bytes begin with the SEQUENCE tag (``0x30``) and contain
    /// the full SEQUENCE OF Extension encoding.  Pass them to a ``Decoder``
    /// to iterate the individual extensions:
    ///
    /// ```python
    /// ext_der = cert.extensions_der
    /// if ext_der:
    ///     dec = synta.Decoder(ext_der, synta.Encoding.DER)
    ///     exts_dec = dec.decode_sequence()
    ///     while not exts_dec.is_empty():
    ///         ext_tlv = exts_dec.decode_raw_tlv()
    /// ```
    #[getter]
    fn extensions_der<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Option<Bound<'py, PyBytes>>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.extensions_der_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.as_ref().map(|b| b.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py)));
        }
        let computed = self
            .cert()?
            .tbs_certificate
            .extensions
            .as_ref()
            .map(|raw: &synta::RawDer<'_>| PyBytes::new(py, raw.as_bytes()));
        let to_store = computed.as_ref().map(|b| b.as_unbound().clone_ref(py));
        let _ = self.extensions_der_cache.set(to_store);
        Ok(computed)
    }

    /// Return the DER content of a named extension's value, or ``None``.
    ///
    /// Searches the certificate's extension list for an extension whose
    /// ``extnID`` equals *oid* (dotted-decimal notation, e.g.
    /// ``"2.5.29.17"`` for SubjectAltName).  When found, the bytes inside
    /// the ``extnValue`` OCTET STRING — the DER-encoded extension-specific
    /// structure — are returned.  Returns ``None`` when the certificate
    /// carries no extensions or the named OID is absent.
    ///
    /// Example — parse SubjectAltName:
    ///
    /// ```python
    ///     san_der = cert.get_extension_value_der("2.5.29.17")
    ///     if san_der:
    ///         dec = synta.Decoder(san_der, synta.Encoding.DER)
    ///         san_seq = dec.decode_sequence()
    ///         while not san_seq.is_empty():
    ///             tag_num, tag_class, _ = san_seq.peek_tag()
    ///             child = san_seq.decode_implicit_tag(tag_num, tag_class)
    ///             if tag_num == 2:  # dNSName
    ///                 print(child.remaining_bytes().decode("ascii"))
    /// ```
    fn get_extension_value_der<'py>(
        &self,
        py: Python<'py>,
        oid: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
    ) -> PyResult<Option<Bound<'py, PyBytes>>> {
        let target = oid_from_pyany(oid)?;
        let raw = match self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.extensions.as_ref() {
            Some(r) => r,
            None => return Ok(None),
        };
        for ext in &synta_certificate::decode_extensions(raw.as_bytes()) {
            if ext.extn_id == target {
                return Ok(Some(PyBytes::new(py, ext.extn_value.as_bytes())));
            }
        }
        Ok(None)
    }

    /// Return the Subject Alternative Names of this certificate as typed objects.
    ///
    /// Combines looking up the SAN extension (OID ``2.5.29.17``) and parsing
    /// its ``GeneralName`` entries into a single call.  Returns a
    /// :class:`list` of typed :mod:`synta.general_name` objects in document
    /// order; returns an empty list when the certificate carries no SAN
    /// extension.
    ///
    /// Each element is one of:
    ///
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.OtherName` — tag 0
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.RFC822Name` — tag 1 (e-mail address)
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.DNSName` — tag 2
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.X400Address` — tag 3 (raw DER)
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.DirectoryName` — tag 4
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.EDIPartyName` — tag 5 (raw DER)
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.UniformResourceIdentifier` — tag 6
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.IPAddress` — tag 7
    /// - :class:`~synta.general_name.RegisteredID` — tag 8
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// import ipaddress
    /// import synta.general_name as gn
    ///
    /// for name in cert.subject_alt_names():
    ///     if isinstance(name, gn.DNSName):
    ///         print("DNS:", name.value)
    ///     elif isinstance(name, gn.IPAddress):
    ///         print("IP:", ipaddress.ip_address(name.address))
    ///     elif isinstance(name, gn.RFC822Name):
    ///         print("email:", name.value)
    ///     elif isinstance(name, gn.DirectoryName):
    ///         attrs = synta.parse_name_attrs(name.name_der)
    ///         print("DirName:", attrs)
    ///     elif isinstance(name, gn.UniformResourceIdentifier):
    ///         print("URI:", name.value)
    /// ```
    fn subject_alt_names<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyList>> {
        use super::general_name::decode_general_names_to_py;
        use synta_certificate::find_extension_value;

        let cert = self.cert()?;
        let raw = match cert.tbs_certificate.extensions.as_ref() {
            Some(r) => r,
            None => return Ok(PyList::empty(py)),
        };
        let san_bytes =
            match find_extension_value(raw.as_bytes(), synta_certificate::oids::SUBJECT_ALT_NAME) {
                Some(b) => b,
                None => return Ok(PyList::empty(py)),
            };
        decode_general_names_to_py(py, san_bytes)
    }

    /// Return the GeneralNames from any extension that encodes a
    /// ``SEQUENCE OF GeneralName``, identified by OID.
    ///
    /// Looks up the extension with the given *oid* and decodes its value as a
    /// ``SEQUENCE OF GeneralName``.  Suitable for SAN (``2.5.29.17``), IAN
    /// (``2.5.29.18``), or any private extension that uses the same format.
    ///
    /// Returns a :class:`list` of typed :mod:`synta.general_name` objects, or
    /// an empty list when the extension is absent or cannot be decoded.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// import synta
    /// import synta.general_name as gn
    ///
    /// cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// # Decode the Issuer Alternative Names extension:
    /// for name in cert.general_names("2.5.29.18"):
    ///     if isinstance(name, gn.DirectoryName):
    ///         print(synta.parse_name_attrs(name.name_der))
    /// ```
    fn general_names<'py>(
        &self,
        py: Python<'py>,
        oid: &Bound<'_, PyAny>,
    ) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyList>> {
        use super::general_name::decode_general_names_to_py;
        use super::oid_from_pyany;
        use synta_certificate::find_extension_value;

        let target = oid_from_pyany(oid)?;
        let cert = self.cert()?;
        let raw = match cert.tbs_certificate.extensions.as_ref() {
            Some(r) => r,
            None => return Ok(PyList::empty(py)),
        };
        let ext_bytes = match find_extension_value(raw.as_bytes(), target.components()) {
            Some(b) => b,
            None => return Ok(PyList::empty(py)),
        };
        decode_general_names_to_py(py, ext_bytes)
    }

    /// Return the CertificatePolicies entries from the extension (OID ``2.5.29.32``).
    ///
    /// Decodes the ``CertificatePolicies`` extension value
    /// (``SEQUENCE OF PolicyInformation``) and returns a list of
    /// :class:`PolicyInformation` objects, each containing the policy OID and
    /// any ``policyQualifiers``.
    ///
    /// Returns an empty list when the extension is absent or cannot be parsed.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// import synta
    /// cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// for pi in cert.certificate_policies():
    ///     print(str(pi.policy_oid))   # e.g. "1.3.6.1.4.1.311.21.8...."
    ///     for q in pi.qualifiers:
    ///         print(str(q.qualifier_oid))
    /// ```
    fn certificate_policies<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyList>> {
        let list = PyList::empty(py);
        let cert = self.cert()?;
        let ext_raw = match cert.tbs_certificate.extensions.as_ref() {
            Some(r) => r,
            None => return Ok(list),
        };
        let ext_value_bytes = synta_certificate::find_extension_value(
            ext_raw.as_bytes(),
            synta_certificate::oids::CERTIFICATE_POLICIES,
        );
        let ext_bytes = match ext_value_bytes {
            Some(b) => b,
            None => return Ok(list),
        };
        // Decode using the code-generated PolicyInformation<'a> type.
        let mut decoder = synta::Decoder::new(ext_bytes, synta::Encoding::Der);
        let infos: Vec<synta_certificate::PolicyInformation<'_>> = match decoder.decode() {
            Ok(v) => v,
            Err(_) => return Ok(list),
        };
        for pi in infos {
            let qualifiers = pi
                .policy_qualifiers
                .unwrap_or_default()
                .into_iter()
                .filter_map(|qi: PolicyQualifierInfo<'_>| {
                    let mut enc = synta::Encoder::new(synta::Encoding::Der);
                    qi.qualifier.encode(&mut enc).ok()?;
                    let qval = enc.finish().ok()?;
                    Some((qi.policy_qualifier_id, qval))
                })
                .collect();
            let py_pi = Py::new(
                py,
                PyPolicyInformation {
                    policy_oid: pi.policy_identifier,
                    qualifiers,
                },
            )?;
            list.append(py_pi.into_bound(py))?;
        }
        Ok(list)
    }

    /// Raw DER bytes of the issuer Name SEQUENCE.
    #[getter]
    fn issuer_raw_der<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.issuer_raw_der_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let py_bytes = PyBytes::new(py, self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.issuer.as_bytes()).unbind();
        let _ = self.issuer_raw_der_cache.set(py_bytes.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_bytes.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Raw DER bytes of the subject Name SEQUENCE.
    #[getter]
    fn subject_raw_der<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.subject_raw_der_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let py_bytes = PyBytes::new(py, self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.subject.as_bytes()).unbind();
        let _ = self.subject_raw_der_cache.set(py_bytes.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_bytes.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// notBefore time as a UTC-aware ``datetime.datetime``.
    ///
    /// Equivalent to ``cert.not_valid_before.replace(tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)``
    /// from the ``cryptography`` library.  Derives the value from the parsed
    /// ASN.1 ``Time`` field (``UTCTime`` or ``GeneralizedTime``) without calling
    /// any Python date-parsing code.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// import datetime
    /// cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// dt = cert.not_before_utc
    /// print(dt.isoformat())       # e.g. "2023-01-01T00:00:00+00:00"
    /// print(dt.tzinfo)            # datetime.timezone.utc
    /// ```
    #[getter]
    fn not_before_utc<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.not_before_utc_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let unix_secs = synta_x509_verification::certificate::time_to_unix(
            &self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.validity.not_before,
        )
        .ok_or_else(|| {
            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err("notBefore date is structurally invalid")
        })?;
        let datetime_mod = py.import("datetime")?;
        let utc = datetime_mod.getattr("timezone")?.getattr("utc")?;
        let dt = datetime_mod
            .getattr("datetime")?
            .call_method1("fromtimestamp", (unix_secs, &utc))?
            .unbind();
        let _ = self.not_before_utc_cache.set(dt.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(dt.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// notAfter time as a UTC-aware ``datetime.datetime``.
    ///
    /// Equivalent to ``cert.not_valid_after.replace(tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)``
    /// from the ``cryptography`` library.  Derives the value from the parsed
    /// ASN.1 ``Time`` field (``UTCTime`` or ``GeneralizedTime``) without calling
    /// any Python date-parsing code.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// import datetime
    /// cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// dt = cert.not_after_utc
    /// print(dt.isoformat())       # e.g. "2033-01-01T00:00:00+00:00"
    /// print(dt.tzinfo)            # datetime.timezone.utc
    /// ```
    #[getter]
    fn not_after_utc<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyAny>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.not_after_utc_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let unix_secs = synta_x509_verification::certificate::time_to_unix(
            &self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.validity.not_after,
        )
        .ok_or_else(|| {
            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err("notAfter date is structurally invalid")
        })?;
        let datetime_mod = py.import("datetime")?;
        let utc = datetime_mod.getattr("timezone")?.getattr("utc")?;
        let dt = datetime_mod
            .getattr("datetime")?
            .call_method1("fromtimestamp", (unix_secs, &utc))?
            .unbind();
        let _ = self.not_after_utc_cache.set(dt.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(dt.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Hash algorithm name component of the certificate's outer signature algorithm.
    ///
    /// Returns the lowercase hash algorithm name (e.g. ``"sha256"``, ``"sha1"``,
    /// ``"sha384"``) implied by the signature algorithm OID.  Returns ``None``
    /// for algorithms that do not use a traditional hash (Ed25519, Ed448,
    /// ML-DSA, etc.).
    ///
    /// For RSASSA-PSS the hash is encoded in the parameters field, which is not
    /// inspected here; ``"sha256"`` is returned as a conservative default.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// hash_name = cert.signature_hash_algorithm_name
    /// if hash_name:
    ///     print(hash_name)    # e.g. "sha256"
    /// else:
    ///     print("no hash (e.g. Ed25519)")
    /// ```
    #[getter]
    fn signature_hash_algorithm_name(&self) -> PyResult<Option<&'static str>> {
        use synta_certificate::oids;
        let oid = &self.cert()?.signature_algorithm.algorithm;
        let c = oid.components();
        // RSA PKCS#1 v1.5 variants (1.2.840.113549.1.1.*)
        if c == oids::SHA1_WITH_RSA {
            return Ok(Some("sha1"));
        }
        if c == oids::SHA256_WITH_RSA {
            return Ok(Some("sha256"));
        }
        if c == oids::SHA384_WITH_RSA {
            return Ok(Some("sha384"));
        }
        if c == oids::SHA512_WITH_RSA {
            return Ok(Some("sha512"));
        }
        // RSA-PSS (hash is in params; return sha256 as safe default)
        if c == oids::RSASSA_PSS {
            return Ok(Some("sha256"));
        }
        // ECDSA variants
        if c == oids::ECDSA_WITH_SHA1 {
            return Ok(Some("sha1"));
        }
        if c == oids::ECDSA_WITH_SHA256 {
            return Ok(Some("sha256"));
        }
        if c == oids::ECDSA_WITH_SHA384 {
            return Ok(Some("sha384"));
        }
        if c == oids::ECDSA_WITH_SHA512 {
            return Ok(Some("sha512"));
        }
        // Ed25519, Ed448, ML-DSA-*, SLH-DSA-* and everything else: no hash
        Ok(None)
    }

    /// Complete DER encoding of the SubjectPublicKeyInfo SEQUENCE.
    ///
    /// Returns the full ``SubjectPublicKeyInfo`` SEQUENCE TLV as ``bytes``,
    /// including the algorithm identifier and the BIT STRING carrying the
    /// actual public key.  This is the DER encoding that
    /// ``cryptography``'s ``public_bytes(Encoding.DER, PublicFormat.SubjectPublicKeyInfo)``
    /// produces.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// spki_der = cert.subject_public_key_info_der
    /// # Load the public key with cryptography:
    /// from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization import load_der_public_key
    /// pub_key = load_der_public_key(spki_der)
    /// ```
    #[getter]
    fn subject_public_key_info_der<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
        if let Some(cached) = self.spki_der_cache.get() {
            return Ok(cached.clone_ref(py).into_bound(py));
        }
        let spki = &self.cert()?.tbs_certificate.subject_public_key_info;
        let mut enc = synta::Encoder::new(synta::Encoding::Der);
        spki.encode(&mut enc)
            .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;
        let bytes = enc
            .finish()
            .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;
        let py_bytes = PyBytes::new(py, &bytes).unbind();
        let _ = self.spki_der_cache.set(py_bytes.clone_ref(py));
        Ok(py_bytes.into_bound(py))
    }

    /// Raw DER bytes of the ``TBSCertificate`` structure — the bytes that
    /// were signed by the issuer's key.
    ///
    /// This is the DER encoding of the full ``TBSCertificate`` SEQUENCE TLV,
    /// suitable for signature verification or as the input to a hash function.
    /// Equivalent to ``cryptography``'s ``cert.tbs_certificate_bytes``.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// tbs = cert.tbs_certificate_der
    /// # Verify signature manually:
    /// import synta.crypto
    /// digest = synta.digest("sha256", tbs)
    /// ```
    #[getter]
    fn tbs_certificate_der<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> Bound<'py, PyBytes> {
        self.tbs_bytes(py)
    }

    /// Verify that this certificate was directly issued by ``issuer``.
    ///
    /// Checks two things:
    ///
    /// 1. The ``issuer`` field of this certificate's TBS matches the
    ///    ``subject`` field of the provided issuer certificate (byte-exact
    ///    DER comparison).
    /// 2. The certificate's signature is valid under the issuer's public key.
    ///
    /// Raises :exc:`ValueError` if either check fails.  This is the synta
    /// equivalent of ``cryptography``'s
    /// ``cert.verify_directly_issued_by(issuer)``.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// root = synta.Certificate.from_pem(open("root.pem", "rb").read())
    /// leaf = synta.Certificate.from_pem(open("leaf.pem", "rb").read())
    /// leaf.verify_issued_by(root)   # raises ValueError if not valid
    /// ```
    fn verify_issued_by(&self, issuer: &PyCertificate) -> PyResult<()> {
        use synta_certificate::{cert_byte_ranges, default_signature_verifier, SignatureVerifier};

        // 1. Name check: our issuer Name must byte-equal their subject Name.
        let cert = self.cert()?;
        let issuer_cert = issuer.cert()?;
        if cert.tbs_certificate.issuer.as_bytes() != issuer_cert.tbs_certificate.subject.as_bytes()
        {
            return Err(pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(
                "issuer name does not match subject of provided certificate",
            ));
        }

        // 2. Locate byte ranges within each cert's DER without re-encoding.
        let my_ranges = cert_byte_ranges(self.raw).ok_or_else(|| {
            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(
                "failed to locate byte ranges in certificate DER",
            )
        })?;
        let issuer_ranges = cert_byte_ranges(issuer.raw).ok_or_else(|| {
            pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(
                "failed to locate byte ranges in issuer certificate DER",
            )
        })?;

        // 3. Signature bits (raw bytes, no unused-bits prefix).
        let signature_bits = cert.signature_value.as_bytes();

        // 4. Verify using the backend-agnostic verifier.
        default_signature_verifier()
            .verify_certificate_signature(
                &self.raw[my_ranges.tbs],
                &self.raw[my_ranges.signature_algorithm],
                signature_bits,
                &issuer.raw[issuer_ranges.subject_public_key_info],
            )
            .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;

        Ok(())
    }

    /// Compute a hash fingerprint of the complete certificate DER.
    ///
    /// ``algorithm`` must be one of ``"sha1"``, ``"sha224"``, ``"sha256"``,
    /// ``"sha384"``, ``"sha512"``, or ``"md5"``.  Raises :exc:`ValueError` for
    /// unknown algorithm names.
    ///
    /// ```python,ignore
    /// cert = synta.Certificate.from_der(der)
    /// fp = cert.fingerprint("sha256")
    /// print(fp.hex())     # e.g. "3a2b1c..."
    /// ```
    fn fingerprint<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>, algorithm: &str) -> PyResult<Bound<'py, PyBytes>> {
        use synta_certificate::{default_data_hasher, DataHasher};
        let digest = default_data_hasher()
            .hash_data(algorithm, self.raw)
            .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(format!("{e}")))?;
        Ok(PyBytes::new(py, &digest))
    }

    fn __repr__(&self) -> PyResult<String> {
        let cert = self.cert()?;
        let serial = &cert.tbs_certificate.serial_number;
        let serial_str = if let Ok(v) = serial.as_i64() {
            v.to_string()
        } else {
            format!("<{} bytes>", serial.as_bytes().len())
        };
        Ok(format!(
            "Certificate(subject={:?}, serial={})",
            decode_name_debug(cert.tbs_certificate.subject.as_bytes()),
            serial_str,
        ))
    }
}

impl PyCertificate {
    /// Parse a DER-encoded X.509 certificate (internal helper visible to sibling modules).
    ///
    /// This is the same logic as the `#[staticmethod] from_der` exposed to Python but
    /// accessible from Rust sibling modules via `pub(super)` visibility.
    pub(crate) fn new_from_der(py: Python<'_>, data: Bound<'_, PyBytes>) -> PyResult<Self> {
        Self::from_der(py, data)
    }
}