secure_gate/

fixed.rs

//! Stack-allocated wrapper for fixed-size secrets.
//!
//! [`Fixed<T>`] is a zero-cost wrapper that enforces explicit, auditable access to
//! sensitive data stored inline on the stack. It is the primary secret type for
//! fixed-length material such as cryptographic keys, nonces, and seeds.
//!
//! # Security invariants
//!
//! - **No `Deref`, `AsRef`, or `Copy`** — the inner value cannot leak through
//!   implicit conversions.
//! - **`Debug` always prints `[REDACTED]`** — secrets never appear in logs or
//!   panic messages.
//! - **Unconditional zeroization on drop** — the inner `T` is overwritten with
//!   zeroes when the wrapper is dropped, even on error paths.
//! - **Opt-in `Clone`** — requires `T: CloneableSecret` and the `cloneable` feature.
//! - **Opt-in `Serialize`** — requires the `SerializableSecret` marker and the
//!   `serde-serialize`/`serde-deserialize` features.
//! - **Avoid move-by-value for long-lived secrets.** Each move of a `Fixed<T>`
//!   bitwise-copies the bytes to a new location and leaves the original stack
//!   slot uncleared until a later frame overwrites it. Pass `&Fixed<T>` /
//!   `&mut Fixed<T>` by reference, keep the wrapper short-scope, or use
//!   [`Dynamic<T>`](crate::Dynamic) for long-lived material (heap-only — no
//!   stack residue surface). See `SECURITY.md` § "Inherent Rust Limitations".
//!
//! # Construction
//!
//! | Constructor | Notes |
//! |---|---|
//! | [`Fixed::new(value)`](Fixed::new) | Ergonomic default; `const fn`. |
//! | [`Fixed::new_with(f)`](Fixed::new_with) | Scoped — preferred for stack-residue minimization. |
//!
//! Prefer [`new_with`](Fixed::new_with) in high-assurance code: it writes directly
//! into the wrapper's storage, avoiding the intermediate stack copy that `new` may
//! produce.
//!
//! # 3-tier access model
//!
//! ```rust
//! use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret, RevealSecretMut};
//!
//! let mut secret = Fixed::new([1u8, 2, 3, 4]);
//!
//! // Tier 1 — scoped (preferred): borrow is confined to the closure.
//! let sum = secret.with_secret(|arr| arr.iter().sum::<u8>());
//! assert_eq!(sum, 10);
//!
//! // Tier 2 — direct: returns a reference. Use as an escape hatch.
//! let first: u8 = secret.expose_secret()[0];
//! assert_eq!(first, 1);
//!
//! // Tier 1 mutable — scoped mutation (preferred over Tier 2 mutable).
//! secret.with_secret_mut(|arr| arr[0] = 0xFF);
//!
//! // Tier 3 — owned: consumes the wrapper for final use.
//! let owned = secret.into_inner();
//! ```
//!
//! # Warning: no `static` secrets
//!
//! `Drop` does not run on `static` items. Placing a `Fixed` in a `static` or
//! `lazy_static!` will **skip zeroization**. Always use stack or heap allocation.
//!
//! Also ensure your profile sets `panic = "unwind"` — `panic = "abort"` skips
//! destructors and therefore skips zeroization.
//!
//! # Import path
//!
//! All public items are re-exported at the crate root. Use:
//!
//! ```rust
//! use secure_gate::Fixed;
//! ```
//!
//! Not `secure_gate::fixed::Fixed`.
//!
//! # See also
//!
//! - [`Dynamic<T>`](crate::Dynamic) — heap-allocated alternative for variable-length
//!   secrets (passwords, API keys, ciphertexts). Requires the `alloc` feature.
//!
//! # Examples
//!
//! ```rust
//! use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret};
//!
//! let secret = Fixed::new([1u8, 2, 3, 4]);
//! let sum = secret.with_secret(|arr| arr.iter().sum::<u8>());
//! assert_eq!(sum, 10);
//! ```

use crate::RevealSecret;
use crate::RevealSecretMut;

#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-base32", feature = "alloc"))]
use crate::traits::encoding::base32::ToBase32;
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-base64", feature = "alloc"))]
use crate::traits::encoding::base64_url::ToBase64Url;
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-bech32", feature = "alloc"))]
use crate::traits::encoding::bech32::ToBech32;
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-bech32", feature = "alloc"))]
use crate::traits::encoding::bech32m::ToBech32m;
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-hex", feature = "alloc"))]
use crate::traits::encoding::hex::ToHex;

#[cfg(feature = "rand")]
use rand::{rngs::OsRng, TryCryptoRng, TryRngCore};
use zeroize::Zeroize;

/// Drains a validated Bech32/Bech32m payload into a stack buffer.
///
/// Shared by the four `try_from_bech32*` constructors. Copies exactly `N`
/// payload bytes into a `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>`; keeps counting (without storing)
/// past `N` so the length-mismatch error reports the exact decoded length.
/// The iteration count is bounded by the checksum-validated input string, so
/// oversized inputs cost at most one bounded pass. Works without `alloc`.
#[cfg(feature = "encoding-bech32")]
fn drain_bech32_payload<const N: usize>(
    checked: &bech32::primitives::decode::CheckedHrpstring<'_>,
) -> Result<zeroize::Zeroizing<[u8; N]>, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
    let mut buf = zeroize::Zeroizing::new([0u8; N]);
    let mut count = 0usize;
    for byte in checked.byte_iter() {
        if count < N {
            buf[count] = byte;
        }
        count += 1;
    }
    if count != N {
        return Err(crate::error::Bech32Error::InvalidLength {
            expected: N,
            got: count,
        });
    }
    Ok(buf)
    // On the error path, buf is zeroized on drop.
}

/// Zero-cost stack-allocated wrapper for fixed-size secrets.
///
/// `Fixed<T>` stores a `T: Zeroize` value inline and unconditionally zeroizes it
/// on drop. There is no `Deref`, `AsRef`, or `Copy` — every access is explicit
/// through [`RevealSecret`] or [`RevealSecretMut`].
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```rust
/// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret};
///
/// // Create a secret key.
/// let key = Fixed::new([0xABu8; 32]);
///
/// // Scoped access — the borrow cannot escape the closure.
/// let first = key.with_secret(|k| k[0]);
/// assert_eq!(first, 0xAB);
///
/// // Debug is always redacted.
/// assert_eq!(format!("{:?}", key), "[REDACTED]");
/// ```
///
/// # Constructors
///
/// | Constructor | Feature | Notes |
/// |---|---|---|
/// | [`new(value)`](Self::new) | — | `const fn`, ergonomic default |
/// | [`new_with(f)`](Self::new_with) | — | Scoped; preferred for stack-residue minimization |
/// | [`From<[u8; N]>`](#impl-From<%5Bu8;+N%5D>-for-Fixed<%5Bu8;+N%5D>) | — | Equivalent to `new` |
/// | [`TryFrom<&[u8]>`](#impl-TryFrom<%26%5Bu8%5D>-for-Fixed<%5Bu8;+N%5D>) | — | Length-checked slice conversion |
/// | [`try_from_hex`](Self::try_from_hex) | `encoding-hex` | Constant-time hex decoding |
/// | [`try_from_base32`](Self::try_from_base32) | `encoding-base32` | Constant-time Base32 decoding |
/// | [`try_from_base64url`](Self::try_from_base64url) | `encoding-base64` | Constant-time Base64url decoding |
/// | [`try_from_bech32`](Self::try_from_bech32) | `encoding-bech32` | HRP-validated Bech32 decoding |
/// | [`try_from_bech32_unchecked`](Self::try_from_bech32_unchecked) | `encoding-bech32` | Bech32 without HRP check |
/// | [`try_from_bech32m`](Self::try_from_bech32m) | `encoding-bech32` | HRP-validated Bech32m decoding |
/// | [`try_from_bech32m_unchecked`](Self::try_from_bech32m_unchecked) | `encoding-bech32` | Bech32m without HRP check |
/// | [`from_random()`](Self::from_random) | `rand` | System RNG |
/// | [`from_rng(rng)`](Self::from_rng) | `rand` | Custom RNG |
///
/// # What `T` may be
///
/// [`Fixed::new`] requires [`FixedStorage`](crate::FixedStorage) on the inner type: a
/// type that owns no buffer whose capacity can change. This is what makes the documented
/// claim that `Fixed` has no reallocation surface true rather than aspirational. It used
/// to be bounded only by `Zeroize`, so `Fixed<Vec<u8>>`, `Fixed<String>` and even
/// `Fixed<[Vec<u8>; 2]>` compiled and abandoned an unwiped buffer holding the whole
/// secret on any capacity change. Arrays, the primitives, tuples, `Option` and boxed
/// slices satisfy the marker already; a custom inner type writes one line. For a
/// growable payload use [`Dynamic`](crate::Dynamic), which documents the residue and
/// offers one safe growth path.
///
/// The bound is on the constructor rather than on the struct, so naming
/// `Fixed<Vec<u8>>` still compiles and no value of it can exist — the same shape as the
/// zero-size guard below.
///
/// # Zero-size
///
/// A value of zero size has nothing to protect, so a `Fixed` cannot be built around
/// one. [`new`](Self::new) and [`new_with`](Self::new_with) each assert a non-zero size
/// in a `const`, and every other constructor in the table above funnels through those
/// two, so `Fixed<[u8; 0]>` — and any other zero-sized inner type — is a compile error
/// however it is reached. The assertion is evaluated at monomorphization rather than at
/// the declaration, so it fires at the first concrete zero-sized construction, including
/// one reached through generic code; generic code that is never instantiated with a
/// zero-sized `T` is unaffected, and naming such a type without constructing one still
/// compiles.
///
/// The diagnostic names the offending type in the failing constant's path — for example
/// `Fixed::<[u8; 0]>::NON_ZERO_SIZED` — and a `while instantiating` note repeats the span of
/// the `new` call the monomorphization reached — the error's own span is the assertion
/// here, not in your code. The note does not name the instantiation that caused it: for a generic `fn build<const N: usize>()`, calling `build::<0>()` reports
/// against the `Fixed::new` line inside `build`, and the `::<0>` call site appears nowhere.
///
/// **Two limits on when it fires, both measured.** It is raised during codegen, so
/// `cargo check` does not report it. And it only fires for a *codegen root*: a non-generic
/// `#[inline]` function in a library is not one, and every method the newtype macros
/// generate carries an inline attribute, so a library whose only zero-sized constructions sit
/// behind `#[inline]` or generic code builds, tests and publishes clean — the error then
/// surfaces in each downstream crate that instantiates it, blaming this crate and the
/// dependency's macro invocation rather than the consumer's call.
///
/// Root-ness is a property of the compiler and the profile, not of the attribute alone, so
/// removing `#[inline]` does not reliably restore the error. Measured: on 1.85 a library
/// exporting a plain non-generic `pub fn empty() -> Empty { Empty::new([]) }` fails
/// `cargo build` and `cargo test` but passes `cargo build --release`, because the
/// cross-crate-inlining heuristic added in 1.75 drops a small function from the exported
/// root set in an optimized build; on 1.70 the same crate fails in both profiles. Treat
/// instantiating the type in a test or a binary as the only reliable check.
///
/// Stated precisely: no *value* of a zero-sized `Fixed` can exist at runtime, because
/// nothing can construct one, and a binary or test that tries fails to compile. The guard
/// does not stop a library from exporting an unusable zero-sized API. Neither limit is a
/// choice — a condition on a generic parameter has nothing to evaluate until that parameter
/// is known, and nothing on stable Rust moves it earlier.
///
/// [`Dynamic`](crate::Dynamic) has no compile-time counterpart, for a reason about its
/// payload rather than its own size: whether a `Vec` or `String` is empty is a runtime
/// property, so there is nothing for a compile-time check to decide. A statically
/// zero-sized inner type is the gap that leaves — `Dynamic<Zst>` constructs where
/// `Fixed<Zst>` does not.
///
/// # RustCrypto integration
///
/// RustCrypto's `BlockEncrypt`/`BlockDecrypt` take `&mut GenericArray<u8, U16>`, and
/// `GenericArray::from_mut_slice` **borrows** its argument instead of copying it. That
/// is what lets a block cipher run *inside* the wrapper, so the plaintext never
/// materializes in memory nothing is obliged to wipe:
///
/// ```rust
/// use aes::cipher::{generic_array::GenericArray, BlockDecrypt, KeyInit};
/// use aes::Aes128;
/// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecretMut};
///
/// let cipher = Aes128::new(GenericArray::from_slice(&[0x42u8; 16]));
/// let mut block: Fixed<[u8; 16]> = Fixed::new([0u8; 16]);
///
/// // `from_mut_slice` reborrows the wrapper's own storage, so zeroize-on-drop still
/// // covers every path out of this scope — early returns and panics included.
/// block.with_secret_mut(|b| cipher.decrypt_block(GenericArray::from_mut_slice(b)));
/// ```
///
/// The shape type inference nudges you toward is the footgun. It compiles, it is the
/// easy thing to reach for, and it defeats the wrapper:
///
/// ```rust
/// # use aes::cipher::{generic_array::GenericArray, BlockDecrypt, KeyInit};
/// # use aes::Aes128;
/// # use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret};
/// # let cipher = Aes128::new(GenericArray::from_slice(&[0x42u8; 16]));
/// # let block: Fixed<[u8; 16]> = Fixed::new([0u8; 16]);
/// // Copies the secret OUT. `copy` is an ordinary stack value: no zeroization on
/// // drop, and it holds plaintext-equivalent bytes for the rest of the scope.
/// let mut copy = block.with_secret(|b| aes::Block::from(*b));
/// cipher.decrypt_block(&mut copy);
/// ```
///
/// The same reasoning applies to [`Dynamic`](crate::Dynamic)`<Vec<u8>>` through
/// [`with_secret_mut`](crate::RevealSecretMut::with_secret_mut), and to the
/// slice-at-a-time APIs (`decrypt_blocks`, `apply_keystream`), which take
/// `&mut [Block]` and `&mut [u8]` and so borrow just as well.
///
/// # See also
///
/// - [`RevealSecret`] / [`RevealSecretMut`] — the 3-tier access traits.
/// - [`new_with`](Self::new_with) — scoped constructor preferred over [`new`](Self::new).
///
/// # Note
///
/// `const fn new` compiles in `static` position, but **must not** be used there
/// because `Drop` does not run on statics, which means zeroization is skipped.
#[must_use = "Fixed<T> holds secret material; dropping it on the floor usually indicates a bug — bind with `let _name = ...` or chain a method call"]
pub struct Fixed<T: zeroize::Zeroize> {
    inner: T,
}

impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize> Fixed<T> {
    // Post-monomorphization guard: a zero-sized `T` has nothing to protect. Fires at the
    // first concrete construction, never at the declaration. An associated `const` rather
    // than an inline `const {}` block so the same hunk builds on the 0.8 line's MSRV 1.70.
    const NON_ZERO_SIZED: () = assert!(
        ::core::mem::size_of::<T>() > 0,
        "secure-gate: Fixed<T> cannot hold a zero-sized value; there is nothing to protect"
    );

    /// Creates a new [`Fixed<T>`] by wrapping a value.
    ///
    /// This is a `const fn`, so it can be evaluated at compile time. However,
    /// **do not** use it to initialize `static` items — `Drop` does not run on
    /// statics, so zeroization would be skipped.
    ///
    /// Prefer [`new_with`](Fixed::new_with) when `T: `[`SentinelValue`](crate::SentinelValue)
    /// and minimizing stack residue matters: `new` may leave an intermediate copy
    /// of `value` on the caller's stack frame.
    ///
    /// A zero-sized `T` is rejected at compile time; see [Zero-size](#zero-size).
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret, SecretLen};
    ///
    /// let secret = Fixed::new([0u8; 32]);
    /// assert_eq!(secret.len(), 32);
    /// ```
    #[inline(always)]
    pub const fn new(value: T) -> Self
    where
        T: crate::FixedStorage,
    {
        // Binding the unit-valued const is what forces it to be evaluated; clippy reads
        // that as a pointless binding. Kept explicit because the 1.70 lint (the 0.8
        // line's MSRV) fires on every spelling that still triggers the evaluation.
        #[allow(clippy::let_unit_value)]
        let () = Self::NON_ZERO_SIZED;
        Fixed { inner: value }
    }

    /// Writes directly into the wrapper's storage via a user-supplied closure,
    /// eliminating the intermediate stack copy that [`new`](Self::new) may produce.
    ///
    /// The slot is initialized to [`T::sentinel_value()`](crate::SentinelValue::sentinel_value)
    /// before the closure runs (zeros for arrays). Prefer this over
    /// [`new(value)`](Self::new) when minimizing stack residue matters
    /// (long-lived keys, high-assurance environments).
    ///
    /// Requires [`FixedStorage`](crate::FixedStorage) and
    /// [`SentinelValue`](crate::SentinelValue) on `T`. Arrays of a `Default`
    /// element already have both; a custom inner type needs the same pair
    /// `into_inner` already asks for.
    ///
    /// # `T` must be inferable at the call site
    ///
    /// This constructor is generic over `T`, so the closure's parameter type is
    /// not known until `T` is. A return type alone does not resolve it in time:
    /// `fn k() -> Fixed<[u8; 32]> { Fixed::new_with(|a| a.fill(1)) }` fails with
    /// **E0282**, `type annotations needed for &mut _`, because the closure body
    /// is checked before the expected return type reaches `T`. Name the type in
    /// either position — both compile, pick whichever reads better:
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// use secure_gate::Fixed;
    ///
    /// // On the type:
    /// let a = Fixed::<[u8; 32]>::new_with(|x| x.fill(1));
    /// // Or on the closure parameter:
    /// let b = Fixed::new_with(|x: &mut [u8; 32]| x.fill(1));
    /// # let _ = (a, b);
    /// ```
    ///
    /// Before 0.8.0-rc.13 this method was inherent to `Fixed<[u8; N]>`, where the
    /// parameter was always a byte array and inference had nothing to resolve. A
    /// newtype built by [`fixed_newtype!`](crate::fixed_newtype) is unaffected in
    /// both arms: its generated `new_with` has a concrete parameter type.
    ///
    /// # Security rationale
    ///
    /// With [`Fixed::new(value)`](Self::new), the caller first builds `value` on
    /// its own stack frame, then moves it into the wrapper. The compiler *may*
    /// elide the copy, but this is not guaranteed — leaving a plaintext residue
    /// on the stack. `new_with` avoids this by giving the closure a mutable
    /// reference to the wrapper's *own* storage, so the secret is never placed
    /// anywhere else.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret};
    ///
    /// // Fill from a closure — no intermediate stack copy.
    /// let secret = Fixed::<[u8; 4]>::new_with(|arr| arr.fill(0xAB));
    /// assert_eq!(secret.expose_secret(), &[0xAB; 4]);
    ///
    /// // Copy from an existing slice.
    /// let src = [1u8, 2, 3, 4];
    /// let secret = Fixed::<[u8; 4]>::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&src));
    /// ```
    ///
    /// A non-byte array uses the same constructor:
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret};
    ///
    /// let poly = Fixed::<[i16; 4]>::new_with(|c| c.fill(7));
    /// assert_eq!(poly.expose_secret(), &[7i16; 4]);
    /// ```
    ///
    /// # See also
    ///
    /// - [`Dynamic::new_with`](crate::Dynamic::new_with) — the heap-allocated
    ///   equivalent (requires `alloc`).
    ///
    /// If the secret will outlive the current function, prefer
    /// [`Dynamic<T>`](crate::Dynamic) over moving `Fixed<T>` around — each
    /// move-by-value leaves residue in the previous stack slot.
    #[inline(always)]
    pub fn new_with<F>(f: F) -> Self
    where
        T: crate::FixedStorage + crate::SentinelValue,
        F: FnOnce(&mut T),
    {
        // Binding the unit-valued const is what forces it to be evaluated; clippy reads
        // that as a pointless binding. Kept explicit because the 1.70 lint (the 0.8
        // line's MSRV) fires on every spelling that still triggers the evaluation.
        #[allow(clippy::let_unit_value)]
        let () = Self::NON_ZERO_SIZED;
        let mut this = Self {
            inner: <T as crate::SentinelValue>::sentinel_value(),
        };
        f(&mut this.inner);
        this
    }
}

/// Converts a byte array into a [`Fixed`] wrapper (equivalent to [`Fixed::new`]).
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```rust
/// use secure_gate::Fixed;
///
/// let secret: Fixed<[u8; 4]> = [1u8, 2, 3, 4].into();
/// ```
impl<const N: usize> From<[u8; N]> for Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    #[inline(always)]
    fn from(arr: [u8; N]) -> Self {
        Self::new(arr)
    }
}

/// Converts a byte slice into `Fixed<[u8; N]>`, failing if the length does not
/// match `N`.
///
/// Internally uses [`Fixed::new_with`] so the secret is written directly into
/// the wrapper's storage.
///
/// # Errors
///
/// Returns [`FromSliceError::InvalidLength`](crate::error::FromSliceError) when
/// `slice.len() != N`.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```rust
/// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret};
///
/// // Success — exact length.
/// let data = [0xFFu8; 4];
/// let secret = Fixed::<[u8; 4]>::try_from(data.as_slice()).unwrap();
/// assert_eq!(secret.expose_secret()[0], 0xFF);
///
/// // Failure — wrong length.
/// let short = [0u8; 2];
/// assert!(Fixed::<[u8; 4]>::try_from(short.as_slice()).is_err());
/// ```
impl<const N: usize> core::convert::TryFrom<&[u8]> for Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    type Error = crate::error::FromSliceError;

    fn try_from(slice: &[u8]) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
        if slice.len() != N {
            return Err(crate::error::FromSliceError::InvalidLength {
                expected: N,
                got: slice.len(),
            });
        }
        Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(slice)))
    }
}

/// Hex encoding and decoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>`.
///
/// Encoding uses a constant-time backend (`base16ct`). Decoding works with or without
/// the `alloc` feature — on no-alloc targets the bytes are decoded directly into a
/// `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` stack buffer.
#[cfg(feature = "encoding-hex")]
impl<const N: usize> Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    /// Decodes a hex string (lowercase, uppercase, or mixed) into `Fixed<[u8; N]>`.
    ///
    /// Uses a constant-time backend (`base16ct`) for both paths.
    ///
    /// - **With `alloc`**: decodes into a `Zeroizing<Vec<u8>>` then copies onto the stack.
    ///   The temporary heap buffer is zeroed on drop even if an error occurs.
    /// - **Without `alloc`**: decodes directly into a `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` stack buffer.
    ///   No heap allocation occurs.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// - [`HexError::InvalidHex`](crate::HexError::InvalidHex) — non-hex characters or odd-length input.
    /// - [`HexError::InvalidLength`](crate::HexError::InvalidLength) — decoded byte count does not equal `N`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "encoding-hex")]
    /// # {
    /// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret, ToHex};
    ///
    /// // Round-trip: encode then decode.
    /// let original = Fixed::new([0xDE, 0xAD, 0xBE, 0xEF]);
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
    /// # {
    /// let hex_str = original.to_hex();
    /// let decoded = Fixed::<[u8; 4]>::try_from_hex(&hex_str).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(decoded.expose_secret(), &[0xDE, 0xAD, 0xBE, 0xEF]);
    /// # }
    ///
    /// // Wrong length fails.
    /// assert!(Fixed::<[u8; 2]>::try_from_hex("deadbeef").is_err());
    /// # }
    /// ```
    pub fn try_from_hex(hex: &str) -> Result<Self, crate::error::HexError> {
        #[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
        {
            use zeroize::Zeroizing;
            let bytes = Zeroizing::new(
                base16ct::mixed::decode_vec(hex.as_bytes())
                    .map_err(|_| crate::error::HexError::InvalidHex)?,
            );
            if bytes.len() != N {
                return Err(crate::error::HexError::InvalidLength {
                    expected: N,
                    got: bytes.len(),
                });
            }
            Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&bytes)))
        }
        #[cfg(not(feature = "alloc"))]
        {
            use zeroize::Zeroizing;
            // no-alloc path: decode directly into a stack buffer; no heap allocation
            // base16ct::mixed accepts upper, lower, and mixed-case hex
            let mut buf = Zeroizing::new([0u8; N]);
            let decoded = base16ct::mixed::decode(hex.as_bytes(), &mut *buf)
                .map_err(|_| crate::error::HexError::InvalidHex)?;
            if decoded.len() != N {
                return Err(crate::error::HexError::InvalidLength {
                    expected: N,
                    got: decoded.len(),
                });
            }
            Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(decoded)))
            // buf is zeroized on drop (both success and error paths)
        }
    }
}

/// Base32 encoding and decoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>` (RFC 4648 §6, uppercase, unpadded).
///
/// Encoding uses a constant-time backend (`base32ct`). Decoding works with or without
/// the `alloc` feature — on no-alloc targets the bytes are decoded directly into a
/// `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` stack buffer.
#[cfg(feature = "encoding-base32")]
impl<const N: usize> Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    /// Decodes an uppercase, unpadded Base32 string (RFC 4648 §6 alphabet) into
    /// `Fixed<[u8; N]>`.
    ///
    /// Uses a constant-time backend (`base32ct`) on both paths.
    ///
    /// - **With `alloc`**: decodes into a `Zeroizing<Vec<u8>>` then copies onto the stack.
    /// - **Without `alloc`**: decodes directly into a `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` stack buffer.
    ///
    /// Decoding is strict about the alphabet, case, padding and length, but lenient
    /// about non-canonical trailing bits: unused bits in the final group are ignored
    /// rather than rejected, so `"MZ"` and `"MY"` both decode to `[0x66]`. Decoding is
    /// therefore not injective — two distinct strings can yield the same bytes, and
    /// only encoder-produced strings are canonical. Do not use the decoded value to
    /// decide that two encoded strings were equal.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// - [`Base32Error::InvalidBase32`](crate::Base32Error::InvalidBase32) — wrong alphabet
    ///   or case, `=` padding, or a length that is impossible for unpadded Base32. Without
    ///   `alloc` an input that decodes to *more* than `N` bytes also lands here rather than in
    ///   `InvalidLength`, because the fixed stack buffer cannot hold the overflow to measure it.
    /// - [`Base32Error::InvalidLength`](crate::Base32Error::InvalidLength) — decoded byte
    ///   count does not equal `N`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "encoding-base32")]
    /// # {
    /// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret, ToBase32};
    ///
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
    /// # {
    /// // Round-trip.
    /// let original = Fixed::new([0xDE, 0xAD, 0xBE, 0xEF]);
    /// let encoded = original.to_base32();
    /// assert_eq!(&*encoded, "32W353Y");
    /// let decoded = Fixed::<[u8; 4]>::try_from_base32(&encoded).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(decoded.expose_secret(), &[0xDE, 0xAD, 0xBE, 0xEF]);
    /// # }
    /// # }
    /// ```
    pub fn try_from_base32(s: &str) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Base32Error> {
        #[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
        {
            use base32ct::{Base32UpperUnpadded, Encoding};
            use zeroize::Zeroizing;
            // base32ct 0.2 panics on impossible trailing-block lengths; see
            // `traits::decoding::base32::encoded_len_is_decodable`.
            if !crate::traits::decoding::base32::encoded_len_is_decodable(s.len()) {
                return Err(crate::error::Base32Error::InvalidBase32);
            }
            let bytes = Zeroizing::new(
                Base32UpperUnpadded::decode_vec(s)
                    .map_err(|_| crate::error::Base32Error::InvalidBase32)?,
            );
            if bytes.len() != N {
                return Err(crate::error::Base32Error::InvalidLength {
                    expected: N,
                    got: bytes.len(),
                });
            }
            Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&bytes)))
        }
        #[cfg(not(feature = "alloc"))]
        {
            use base32ct::{Base32UpperUnpadded, Encoding};
            use zeroize::Zeroizing;
            // base32ct 0.2 panics on impossible trailing-block lengths; see
            // `traits::decoding::base32::encoded_len_is_decodable`.
            if !crate::traits::decoding::base32::encoded_len_is_decodable(s.len()) {
                return Err(crate::error::Base32Error::InvalidBase32);
            }
            let mut buf = Zeroizing::new([0u8; N]);
            let decoded = Base32UpperUnpadded::decode(s, &mut *buf)
                .map_err(|_| crate::error::Base32Error::InvalidBase32)?;
            if decoded.len() != N {
                return Err(crate::error::Base32Error::InvalidLength {
                    expected: N,
                    got: decoded.len(),
                });
            }
            Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(decoded)))
            // buf is zeroized on drop (both success and error paths)
        }
    }
}

/// Base64url encoding and decoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>`.
///
/// Encoding uses a constant-time backend (`base64ct`). Decoding works with or without
/// the `alloc` feature — on no-alloc targets the bytes are decoded directly into a
/// `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` stack buffer.
#[cfg(feature = "encoding-base64")]
impl<const N: usize> Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    /// Decodes an unpadded Base64url string (RFC 4648, URL-safe alphabet) into
    /// `Fixed<[u8; N]>`.
    ///
    /// Uses a constant-time backend (`base64ct`) on both paths.
    ///
    /// - **With `alloc`**: decodes into a `Zeroizing<Vec<u8>>` then copies onto the stack.
    /// - **Without `alloc`**: decodes directly into a `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` stack buffer.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// - [`Base64Error::InvalidBase64`](crate::Base64Error::InvalidBase64) — non-base64 characters or invalid padding.
    /// - [`Base64Error::InvalidLength`](crate::Base64Error::InvalidLength) — decoded byte count does not equal `N`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "encoding-base64")]
    /// # {
    /// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret, ToBase64Url};
    ///
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
    /// # {
    /// // Round-trip.
    /// let original = Fixed::new([0xDE, 0xAD, 0xBE, 0xEF]);
    /// let encoded = original.to_base64url();
    /// let decoded = Fixed::<[u8; 4]>::try_from_base64url(&encoded).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(decoded.expose_secret(), &[0xDE, 0xAD, 0xBE, 0xEF]);
    /// # }
    /// # }
    /// ```
    pub fn try_from_base64url(s: &str) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Base64Error> {
        #[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
        {
            use base64ct::{Base64UrlUnpadded, Encoding};
            use zeroize::Zeroizing;
            let bytes = Zeroizing::new(
                Base64UrlUnpadded::decode_vec(s)
                    .map_err(|_| crate::error::Base64Error::InvalidBase64)?,
            );
            if bytes.len() != N {
                return Err(crate::error::Base64Error::InvalidLength {
                    expected: N,
                    got: bytes.len(),
                });
            }
            Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&bytes)))
        }
        #[cfg(not(feature = "alloc"))]
        {
            use base64ct::{Base64UrlUnpadded, Encoding};
            use zeroize::Zeroizing;
            let mut buf = Zeroizing::new([0u8; N]);
            let decoded = Base64UrlUnpadded::decode(s, &mut *buf)
                .map_err(|_| crate::error::Base64Error::InvalidBase64)?;
            if decoded.len() != N {
                return Err(crate::error::Base64Error::InvalidLength {
                    expected: N,
                    got: decoded.len(),
                });
            }
            Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(decoded)))
            // buf is zeroized on drop (both success and error paths)
        }
    }
}

/// Bech32 (BIP-173) encoding and decoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>`.
///
/// The plain constructors accept strings up to
/// [`BECH32_CODE_LENGTH`](crate::BECH32_CODE_LENGTH); the `_sized::<C>` constructors
/// take the code length as a parameter for larger payloads. For Bitcoin address formats
/// use `ToBech32m` and stay within BIP-173's 90-character convention.
#[cfg(feature = "encoding-bech32")]
impl<const N: usize> Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    /// Decodes a Bech32 (BIP-173) string into `Fixed<[u8; N]>`, validating that the HRP
    /// matches `expected_hrp` (case-insensitive).
    ///
    /// HRP comparison is non-constant-time — this is intentional, as the HRP is public
    /// metadata, not secret material. Timing leaks on HRP mismatch are acceptable because
    /// the HRP is not secret. Prefer this over
    /// [`try_from_bech32_unchecked`](Self::try_from_bech32_unchecked) to prevent
    /// cross-protocol confusion attacks.
    ///
    /// Works without `alloc` — decodes into a stack-allocated `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` buffer.
    pub fn try_from_bech32(s: &str, expected_hrp: &str) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        Self::try_from_bech32_sized::<{ crate::BECH32_CODE_LENGTH }>(s, expected_hrp)
    }

    /// Like [`try_from_bech32`](Self::try_from_bech32), accepting strings up to `C`
    /// characters.
    ///
    /// `C` is the bech32 *code length* -- the cap on the whole encoded string -- and is
    /// independent of `N`, the decoded byte count this wrapper holds. Pass the `C` the
    /// string was encoded with, or any larger value. See
    /// [`Bech32Sized`](crate::Bech32Sized) for what `C` above
    /// [`BECH32_CODE_LENGTH`](crate::BECH32_CODE_LENGTH) costs.
    ///
    /// Works without `alloc` -- decodes into a stack-allocated `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` buffer.
    pub fn try_from_bech32_sized<const C: usize>(
        s: &str,
        expected_hrp: &str,
    ) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        use crate::traits::encoding::bech32::Bech32Sized;
        use bech32::primitives::decode::CheckedHrpstring;
        let checked = CheckedHrpstring::new::<Bech32Sized<C>>(s)
            .map_err(|_| crate::error::Bech32Error::OperationFailed)?;
        // HRP check before any payload byte is materialized (case-insensitive
        // comparison — timing leak is acceptable since HRP is public metadata)
        if !checked.hrp().as_str().eq_ignore_ascii_case(expected_hrp) {
            return Err(crate::error::Bech32Error::UnexpectedHrp);
        }
        let buf = drain_bech32_payload::<N>(&checked)?;
        Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&*buf)))
        // buf is zeroized on drop
    }

    /// Decodes a Bech32 (BIP-173) string into `Fixed<[u8; N]>` without validating the HRP.
    ///
    /// Any valid HRP is accepted as long as the checksum is valid and the payload length
    /// equals `N`. Use [`try_from_bech32`](Self::try_from_bech32) in security-critical code
    /// to prevent cross-protocol confusion attacks.
    ///
    /// Works without `alloc` — decodes into a stack-allocated `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` buffer.
    pub fn try_from_bech32_unchecked(s: &str) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        Self::try_from_bech32_unchecked_sized::<{ crate::BECH32_CODE_LENGTH }>(s)
    }

    /// Like [`try_from_bech32_unchecked`](Self::try_from_bech32_unchecked), accepting
    /// strings up to `C` characters.
    pub fn try_from_bech32_unchecked_sized<const C: usize>(
        s: &str,
    ) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        use crate::traits::encoding::bech32::Bech32Sized;
        use bech32::primitives::decode::CheckedHrpstring;
        let checked = CheckedHrpstring::new::<Bech32Sized<C>>(s)
            .map_err(|_| crate::error::Bech32Error::OperationFailed)?;
        let buf = drain_bech32_payload::<N>(&checked)?;
        Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&*buf)))
        // buf is zeroized on drop
    }
}

/// Bech32m (BIP-350) encoding and decoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>`.
///
/// The plain constructors accept strings up to
/// [`BECH32_CODE_LENGTH`](crate::BECH32_CODE_LENGTH); the `_sized::<C>` constructors
/// take the code length as a parameter. Bitcoin address tooling expects BIP-173's
/// 90-character cap, which is narrower than either and is the caller's to respect.
#[cfg(feature = "encoding-bech32")]
impl<const N: usize> Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    /// Decodes a Bech32m (BIP-350) string into `Fixed<[u8; N]>`, validating that the HRP
    /// matches `expected_hrp` (case-insensitive).
    ///
    /// HRP comparison is non-constant-time — this is intentional, as the HRP is public
    /// metadata, not secret material. Timing leaks on HRP mismatch are acceptable because
    /// the HRP is not secret. Prefer this over
    /// [`try_from_bech32m_unchecked`](Self::try_from_bech32m_unchecked) to prevent
    /// cross-protocol confusion attacks.
    ///
    /// Works without `alloc` — decodes into a stack-allocated `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` buffer.
    pub fn try_from_bech32m(
        s: &str,
        expected_hrp: &str,
    ) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        Self::try_from_bech32m_sized::<{ crate::BECH32_CODE_LENGTH }>(s, expected_hrp)
    }

    /// Like [`try_from_bech32m`](Self::try_from_bech32m), accepting strings up to `C`
    /// characters.
    ///
    /// `C` is the bech32m *code length*, independent of `N`, the decoded byte count.
    /// See [`Bech32mSized`](crate::Bech32mSized) for what `C` above
    /// [`BECH32_CODE_LENGTH`](crate::BECH32_CODE_LENGTH) costs.
    ///
    /// Works without `alloc` -- decodes into a stack-allocated `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` buffer.
    pub fn try_from_bech32m_sized<const C: usize>(
        s: &str,
        expected_hrp: &str,
    ) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        use crate::traits::encoding::bech32m::Bech32mSized;
        use bech32::primitives::decode::CheckedHrpstring;
        let checked = CheckedHrpstring::new::<Bech32mSized<C>>(s)
            .map_err(|_| crate::error::Bech32Error::OperationFailed)?;
        // HRP check before any payload byte is materialized (case-insensitive
        // comparison — timing leak is acceptable since HRP is public metadata)
        if !checked.hrp().as_str().eq_ignore_ascii_case(expected_hrp) {
            return Err(crate::error::Bech32Error::UnexpectedHrp);
        }
        let buf = drain_bech32_payload::<N>(&checked)?;
        Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&*buf)))
        // buf is zeroized on drop
    }

    /// Decodes a Bech32m (BIP-350) string into `Fixed<[u8; N]>` without validating the HRP.
    ///
    /// Any valid HRP is accepted as long as the checksum is valid and the payload length
    /// equals `N`. Use [`try_from_bech32m`](Self::try_from_bech32m) in security-critical
    /// code to prevent cross-protocol confusion attacks.
    ///
    /// Works without `alloc` — decodes into a stack-allocated `Zeroizing<[u8; N]>` buffer.
    pub fn try_from_bech32m_unchecked(s: &str) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        Self::try_from_bech32m_unchecked_sized::<{ crate::BECH32_CODE_LENGTH }>(s)
    }

    /// Like [`try_from_bech32m_unchecked`](Self::try_from_bech32m_unchecked), accepting
    /// strings up to `C` characters.
    pub fn try_from_bech32m_unchecked_sized<const C: usize>(
        s: &str,
    ) -> Result<Self, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        use crate::traits::encoding::bech32m::Bech32mSized;
        use bech32::primitives::decode::CheckedHrpstring;
        let checked = CheckedHrpstring::new::<Bech32mSized<C>>(s)
            .map_err(|_| crate::error::Bech32Error::OperationFailed)?;
        let buf = drain_bech32_payload::<N>(&checked)?;
        Ok(Self::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&*buf)))
        // buf is zeroized on drop
    }
}

/// Hex encoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>` — same constant-time backend as the
/// [`ToHex`] blanket impl on the inner bytes; delegates via `with_secret`.
///
/// Bring the trait into scope to call these: `use secure_gate::ToHex;`.
///
/// ```rust
/// use secure_gate::{Fixed, ToHex};
///
/// let key = Fixed::new([0xABu8; 4]);
/// assert_eq!(&*key.to_hex(), "abababab");
/// assert_eq!(&*key.to_hex_upper(), "ABABABAB");
/// // Both return an `EncodedSecret` — the encoded form wipes itself on drop.
/// ```
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-hex", feature = "alloc"))]
impl<const N: usize> ToHex for Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    #[inline]
    fn to_hex(&self) -> crate::EncodedSecret {
        self.with_secret(|s| s.to_hex())
    }

    #[inline]
    fn to_hex_upper(&self) -> crate::EncodedSecret {
        self.with_secret(|s| s.to_hex_upper())
    }
}

/// Base32 encoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>`; delegates via `with_secret`.
///
/// Bring the trait into scope to call these: `use secure_gate::ToBase32;`.
///
/// ```rust
/// use secure_gate::{Fixed, ToBase32};
///
/// let key = Fixed::new([0xABu8; 4]);
/// assert_eq!(&*key.to_base32(), "VOV2XKY");
/// ```
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-base32", feature = "alloc"))]
impl<const N: usize> ToBase32 for Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    #[inline]
    fn to_base32(&self) -> crate::EncodedSecret {
        self.with_secret(|s| s.to_base32())
    }
}

/// Base64url encoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>`; delegates via `with_secret`.
///
/// Bring the trait into scope to call these: `use secure_gate::ToBase64Url;`.
///
/// ```rust
/// use secure_gate::{Fixed, ToBase64Url};
///
/// let key = Fixed::new([0xABu8; 4]);
/// assert_eq!(&*key.to_base64url(), "q6urqw");
/// ```
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-base64", feature = "alloc"))]
impl<const N: usize> ToBase64Url for Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    #[inline]
    fn to_base64url(&self) -> crate::EncodedSecret {
        self.with_secret(|s| s.to_base64url())
    }
}

/// Bech32 encoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>`; delegates via `with_secret`.
///
/// Bring the trait into scope to call these: `use secure_gate::ToBech32;`.
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-bech32", feature = "alloc"))]
impl<const N: usize> ToBech32 for Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    #[inline]
    fn try_to_bech32(
        &self,
        hrp: &str,
        case: crate::Case,
    ) -> Result<crate::EncodedSecret, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        self.with_secret(|s| s.try_to_bech32(hrp, case))
    }

    #[inline]
    fn try_to_bech32_sized<const C: usize>(
        &self,
        hrp: &str,
        case: crate::Case,
    ) -> Result<crate::EncodedSecret, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        self.with_secret(|s| s.try_to_bech32_sized::<C>(hrp, case))
    }
}

/// Bech32m encoding for `Fixed<[u8; N]>`; delegates via `with_secret`.
///
/// Bring the trait into scope to call these: `use secure_gate::ToBech32m;`.
#[cfg(all(feature = "encoding-bech32", feature = "alloc"))]
impl<const N: usize> ToBech32m for Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    #[inline]
    fn try_to_bech32m(
        &self,
        hrp: &str,
        case: crate::Case,
    ) -> Result<crate::EncodedSecret, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        self.with_secret(|s| s.try_to_bech32m(hrp, case))
    }

    #[inline]
    fn try_to_bech32m_sized<const C: usize>(
        &self,
        hrp: &str,
        case: crate::Case,
    ) -> Result<crate::EncodedSecret, crate::error::Bech32Error> {
        self.with_secret(|s| s.try_to_bech32m_sized::<C>(hrp, case))
    }
}

/// Explicit access to immutable [`Fixed<[T; N]>`] contents.
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize> RevealSecret for Fixed<T> {
    type Inner = T;

    #[inline(always)]
    fn with_secret<F, R>(&self, f: F) -> R
    where
        F: FnOnce(&T) -> R,
    {
        f(&self.inner)
    }

    #[inline(always)]
    fn expose_secret(&self) -> &T {
        &self.inner
    }

    /// Consumes `self` and transfers ownership of the plain `[T; N]`.
    ///
    /// Zero cost — no allocation. The sentinel placed in `self.inner` is
    /// `[T::default(); N]` via [`crate::SentinelValue`] (already zeroed for `u8`),
    /// so `Fixed::drop` zeroizes an already-zero array — a harmless no-op.
    /// Works for **any** array length `N` (not limited to 32 like `Default`).
    ///
    /// See [`RevealSecret::into_inner`] for the full contract, including the
    /// `SentinelValue` bound rationale. Protection ends at this call: the array you
    /// get back is plain — not wiped on drop, and its `Debug` is not redacted.
    #[inline(always)]
    fn into_inner(mut self) -> T
    where
        Self: Sized,
        Self::Inner: Sized + crate::SentinelValue + zeroize::Zeroize,
    {
        // Replace inner with the sentinel so Fixed::drop zeroizes a harmless
        // placeholder while the caller receives the real secret. The secret is stored
        // inline, so this transfers the bytes rather than handing over an allocation;
        // what the sentinel guarantees is that no second copy is left behind here.
        core::mem::replace(&mut self.inner, crate::SentinelValue::sentinel_value())
    }
}

/// Length is only meaningful for array-shaped secrets.
impl<const N: usize, T: zeroize::Zeroize> crate::SecretLen for Fixed<[T; N]> {
    #[inline(always)]
    fn len(&self) -> usize {
        N
    }

    #[inline(always)]
    fn byte_len(&self) -> usize {
        N * core::mem::size_of::<T>()
    }
}

/// Explicit access to mutable [`Fixed<[T; N]>`] contents.
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize> RevealSecretMut for Fixed<T> {
    #[inline(always)]
    fn with_secret_mut<F, R>(&mut self, f: F) -> R
    where
        F: FnOnce(&mut T) -> R,
    {
        f(&mut self.inner)
    }

    #[inline(always)]
    fn expose_secret_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
        &mut self.inner
    }
}

#[cfg(feature = "rand")]
impl<const N: usize> Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    /// Fills a new `[u8; N]` with cryptographically secure random bytes and wraps it.
    ///
    /// Uses the system RNG ([`OsRng`](rand::rngs::OsRng)) via [`TryRngCore::try_fill_bytes`](rand::TryRngCore::try_fill_bytes).
    /// In `rand` 0.9, `OsRng` is a zero-sized handle to the OS generator (not user-seedable). Requires the `rand`
    /// feature. Heap-free and works in `no_std` / `no_alloc` builds.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the system RNG fails to provide bytes ([`TryRngCore::try_fill_bytes`](rand::TryRngCore::try_fill_bytes)
    /// returns `Err`). This is treated as a fatal environment error.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "rand")]
    /// use secure_gate::{Fixed, RevealSecret, SecretLen};
    ///
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "rand")]
    /// # {
    /// let key: Fixed<[u8; 32]> = Fixed::from_random();
    /// assert_eq!(key.len(), 32);
    /// # }
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn from_random() -> Self {
        Self::new_with(|arr| {
            OsRng
                .try_fill_bytes(arr)
                .expect("OsRng failure is a program error");
        })
    }

    /// Fills a new `[u8; N]` from `rng` and wraps it.
    ///
    /// Accepts any [`TryCryptoRng`](rand::TryCryptoRng) + [`TryRngCore`](rand::TryRngCore) — for example,
    /// a seeded `StdRng` for deterministic tests. Requires the `rand`
    /// feature. Heap-free.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns `R::Error` if [`try_fill_bytes`](rand::TryRngCore::try_fill_bytes) fails.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # #[cfg(feature = "rand")]
    /// # {
    /// use rand::rngs::StdRng;
    /// use rand::SeedableRng;
    /// use secure_gate::Fixed;
    ///
    /// let mut rng = StdRng::from_seed([1u8; 32]);
    /// let key: Fixed<[u8; 16]> = Fixed::from_rng(&mut rng).expect("rng fill");
    /// # }
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn from_rng<R: TryRngCore + TryCryptoRng>(rng: &mut R) -> Result<Self, R::Error> {
        let mut result = Ok(());
        let this = Self::new_with(|arr| {
            result = rng.try_fill_bytes(arr);
        });
        result.map(|_| this) // on Err, `this` drops → zeroizes any partial fill
    }
}

/// Constant-time equality for `Fixed<T>` — routes through [`expose_secret()`](crate::RevealSecret::expose_secret).
///
/// `==` is **deliberately not implemented** on `Fixed`. Always use `ct_eq`.
///
/// ```rust
/// # #[cfg(feature = "ct-eq")]
/// # {
/// use secure_gate::{Fixed, ConstantTimeEq};
///
/// let a = Fixed::new([1u8; 4]);
/// let b = Fixed::new([1u8; 4]);
/// let c = Fixed::new([2u8; 4]);
/// assert!(a.ct_eq(&b));
/// assert!(!a.ct_eq(&c));
/// # }
/// ```
#[cfg(feature = "ct-eq")]
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize> crate::ConstantTimeEq for Fixed<T>
where
    T: crate::ConstantTimeEq,
    Self: crate::RevealSecret<Inner = T>,
{
    fn ct_eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
        self.expose_secret().ct_eq(other.expose_secret())
    }
}

/// Always prints `[REDACTED]` — secrets never appear in debug output.
///
/// ```rust
/// use secure_gate::Fixed;
///
/// let key = Fixed::new([0xABu8; 32]);
/// assert_eq!(format!("{:?}", key), "[REDACTED]");
/// ```
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize> core::fmt::Debug for Fixed<T> {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut core::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> core::fmt::Result {
        f.write_str("[REDACTED]")
    }
}

/// Opt-in cloning — requires `cloneable` feature and [`CloneableSecret`](crate::CloneableSecret)
/// marker on the inner type. Each clone is independently zeroized on drop, but cloning
/// increases the in-memory exposure surface. Use sparingly.
#[cfg(feature = "cloneable")]
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize + crate::CloneableSecret + crate::FixedStorage> Clone for Fixed<T> {
    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
        Self::new(self.inner.clone())
    }
}

/// Opt-in serialization — requires `serde-serialize` feature and
/// [`SerializableSecret`](crate::SerializableSecret) marker on the inner type.
/// Serialization exposes the full secret — audit every impl.
#[cfg(feature = "serde-serialize")]
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize + crate::SerializableSecret> serde::Serialize for Fixed<T> {
    fn serialize<S>(&self, serializer: S) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
    where
        S: serde::Serializer,
    {
        self.inner.serialize(serializer)
    }
}

/// Deserialization uses `Zeroizing`-wrapped temporary buffers — zeroized even on rejection.
///
/// The sequence buffer is pre-allocated to exactly `N` bytes and **never grows**: an
/// input sequence longer than `N` is rejected before the element that would trigger a
/// reallocation is stored. This matters because a `Vec` reallocation frees the old
/// buffer — which would already hold `N` secret bytes — without zeroizing it.
///
/// The entry point is `deserialize_seq` (unchanged wire format for non-self-describing
/// formats such as postcard), but the visitor also accepts byte strings via
/// `visit_bytes` / `visit_byte_buf`, so self-describing formats that encode byte
/// arrays as byte strings (e.g. CBOR) round-trip too. Owned buffers handed over
/// through `visit_byte_buf` are zeroized after the copy.
#[cfg(feature = "serde-deserialize")]
impl<'de, const N: usize> serde::Deserialize<'de> for Fixed<[u8; N]> {
    fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> Result<Self, D::Error>
    where
        D: serde::Deserializer<'de>,
    {
        use core::fmt;
        use serde::de::Visitor;
        struct FixedVisitor<const M: usize>;
        impl<'de, const M: usize> Visitor<'de> for FixedVisitor<M> {
            type Value = Fixed<[u8; M]>;
            fn expecting(&self, formatter: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
                write!(formatter, "a byte array of length {}", M)
            }
            fn visit_seq<A>(self, mut seq: A) -> Result<Self::Value, A::Error>
            where
                A: serde::de::SeqAccess<'de>,
            {
                let mut vec: zeroize::Zeroizing<alloc::vec::Vec<u8>> =
                    zeroize::Zeroizing::new(alloc::vec::Vec::with_capacity(M));
                while let Some(value) = seq.next_element()? {
                    // Reject over-length input *before* pushing past the reserved
                    // capacity: growing would realloc and free the old buffer
                    // (already holding M secret bytes) without zeroization.
                    if vec.len() == M {
                        return Err(serde::de::Error::invalid_length(M + 1, &self));
                    }
                    vec.push(value);
                }
                if vec.len() != M {
                    return Err(serde::de::Error::invalid_length(vec.len(), &self));
                }
                Ok(Fixed::<[u8; M]>::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(&vec)))
            }
            fn visit_bytes<E>(self, v: &[u8]) -> Result<Self::Value, E>
            where
                E: serde::de::Error,
            {
                if v.len() != M {
                    return Err(serde::de::Error::invalid_length(v.len(), &self));
                }
                Ok(Fixed::<[u8; M]>::new_with(|arr| arr.copy_from_slice(v)))
            }
            fn visit_byte_buf<E>(self, v: alloc::vec::Vec<u8>) -> Result<Self::Value, E>
            where
                E: serde::de::Error,
            {
                // Take ownership under Zeroizing so the deserializer-provided
                // buffer is wiped after the copy — the default forwarding impl
                // would drop it unzeroized.
                let v = zeroize::Zeroizing::new(v);
                self.visit_bytes(&v)
            }
        }
        deserializer.deserialize_seq(FixedVisitor::<N>)
    }
}

/// Zeroizes the inner value. Called automatically by [`Drop`].
///
/// **Warning:** zeroization does not run for `static` items or under `panic = "abort"`.
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize> zeroize::Zeroize for Fixed<T> {
    fn zeroize(&mut self) {
        self.inner.zeroize();
    }
}

/// Unconditionally zeroizes the inner value when the wrapper is dropped.
///
/// **Warning:** `Drop` does not run for `static` items or under `panic = "abort"`.
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize> Drop for Fixed<T> {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        self.zeroize();
    }
}

/// Marker confirming that `Fixed<T>` always zeroizes on drop.
impl<T: zeroize::Zeroize> zeroize::ZeroizeOnDrop for Fixed<T> {}