scirs2_core/gpu/

mod.rs

//! GPU acceleration module for scirs2-core
//!
//! This module provides hardware acceleration support across different GPU backends.

use std::fmt;
use std::marker::PhantomData;
use std::sync::Arc;

pub mod async_execution;
pub mod async_transfer;
pub mod auto_tuning;
pub mod backends;
pub mod benchmarks;
mod cpu_ops;
pub mod device_info;
pub mod heterogeneous;
pub mod kernels;
pub mod memory_management;
pub mod stream_allocator;
pub mod tensor_cores;

pub use async_transfer::{
    AsyncTransferError, AsyncTransferPipeline, TransferDirection, TransferHandle,
};
pub use device_info::GpuDeviceInfo;
pub use memory_management::unified_memory::{SyncState, UnifiedAllocator, UnifiedBuffer};
pub use stream_allocator::{StreamAllocator, StreamId};

/// GPU backend type
#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
pub enum GpuBackend {
    /// NVIDIA CUDA backend
    Cuda,
    /// AMD ROCm backend
    Rocm,
    /// WebGPU backend
    Wgpu,
    /// Apple Metal backend
    Metal,
    /// OpenCL backend
    OpenCL,
    /// CPU fallback
    Cpu,
}

impl Default for GpuBackend {
    fn default() -> Self {
        Self::preferred()
    }
}

impl GpuBackend {
    /// Get the preferred GPU backend for the current system
    pub fn preferred() -> Self {
        // Use the backend detection system to find the optimal backend
        // This will properly detect available GPUs and fall back to CPU if needed
        match backends::initialize_optimal_backend() {
            Ok(backend) => {
                // If we get a non-CPU backend, verify it's actually usable
                if backend != GpuBackend::Cpu {
                    // Check if we can actually create a context with this backend
                    // For now, since implementations are stubs, fall back to CPU
                    #[cfg(not(test))]
                    {
                        // In non-test environments, we don't have real GPU implementations yet
                        return GpuBackend::Cpu;
                    }
                    #[cfg(test)]
                    {
                        // In tests, we can pretend the backend works
                        return backend;
                    }
                }
                backend
            }
            Err(_) => {
                // If detection fails entirely, use CPU
                GpuBackend::Cpu
            }
        }
    }

    /// Check if this backend is available on the current system
    pub fn is_available(&self) -> bool {
        match self {
            // Check runtime availability for GPU backends
            GpuBackend::Cuda => false, // CUDA backend retired from scirs2-core in 0.6.x — use oxicuda-* crates
            GpuBackend::Rocm => cfg!(feature = "rocm"), // Would use ROCm runtime check
            GpuBackend::Wgpu => {
                #[cfg(feature = "wgpu")]
                {
                    use crate::gpu::backends::wgpu::WebGPUContext;
                    WebGPUContext::is_available()
                }
                #[cfg(not(feature = "wgpu"))]
                {
                    false
                }
            }
            GpuBackend::Metal => {
                #[cfg(all(feature = "metal", target_os = "macos"))]
                {
                    // Metal is always available on macOS if the feature is enabled
                    true
                }
                #[cfg(not(all(feature = "metal", target_os = "macos")))]
                {
                    false
                }
            }
            GpuBackend::OpenCL => {
                #[cfg(feature = "opencl")]
                {
                    use crate::gpu::backends::opencl::OpenCLContext;
                    OpenCLContext::is_available()
                }
                #[cfg(not(feature = "opencl"))]
                {
                    false
                }
            }
            GpuBackend::Cpu => true,
        }
    }
}

impl fmt::Display for GpuBackend {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        match self {
            GpuBackend::Cuda => write!(f, "CUDA"),
            GpuBackend::Rocm => write!(f, "ROCm"),
            GpuBackend::Wgpu => write!(f, "WebGPU"),
            GpuBackend::Metal => write!(f, "Metal"),
            GpuBackend::OpenCL => write!(f, "OpenCL"),
            GpuBackend::Cpu => write!(f, "CPU"),
        }
    }
}

use crate::error::{CoreError, ErrorContext, ErrorLocation};

/// Error type for GPU operations
#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)]
pub enum GpuError {
    /// Backend is not available
    #[error("GPU backend {0} is not available")]
    BackendNotAvailable(String),

    /// Backend is not supported
    #[error("GPU backend {0} is not supported")]
    UnsupportedBackend(GpuBackend),

    /// Backend is not supported for a kernel
    #[error("GPU backend {0:?} is not supported for this kernel")]
    BackendNotSupported(GpuBackend),

    /// Backend is not implemented yet
    #[error("GPU backend {0} is not implemented yet")]
    BackendNotImplemented(GpuBackend),

    /// Out of memory
    #[error("GPU out of memory: {0}")]
    OutOfMemory(String),

    /// Kernel compilation error
    #[error("Kernel compilation error: {0}")]
    KernelCompilationError(String),

    /// Kernel execution error
    #[error("Kernel execution error: {0}")]
    KernelExecutionError(String),

    /// Invalid parameter
    #[error("Invalid parameter: {0}")]
    InvalidParameter(String),

    /// Kernel not found
    #[error("Kernel not found: {0}")]
    KernelNotFound(String),

    /// Specialization not supported
    #[error("Kernel specialization not supported")]
    SpecializationNotSupported,

    /// Unsupported data type
    #[error("Unsupported data type: {0:?}")]
    UnsupportedDataType(kernels::DataType),

    /// Other error
    #[error("{0}")]
    Other(String),
}

/// GPU device abstraction
#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub struct GpuDevice {
    backend: GpuBackend,
    device_id: usize,
}

impl GpuDevice {
    /// Create a new GPU device
    pub fn new(backend: GpuBackend, device_id: usize) -> Self {
        Self { backend, device_id }
    }

    /// Get the backend type
    pub fn backend(&self) -> GpuBackend {
        self.backend
    }

    /// Get the device ID
    pub fn device_id(&self) -> usize {
        self.device_id
    }

    /// Compile a kernel from source
    pub fn compile_kernel(&self, _source: &str, entrypoint: &str) -> Result<GpuKernel, GpuError> {
        // Placeholder implementation
        Ok(GpuKernel {
            backend: self.backend,
            entry_point: entrypoint.to_string(),
        })
    }

    /// Query the capabilities of this device.
    ///
    /// Returns a [`GpuDeviceInfo`] describing the device name, type, memory,
    /// work-group limits and supported floating-point precisions. The values are
    /// derived deterministically from this device's [`backend`](Self::backend).
    ///
    /// In the default Pure-Rust build no GPU SDK is linked, so the values for
    /// hardware backends are conservative placeholders (see
    /// [`GpuDeviceInfo`]); the method itself never fails in that configuration.
    /// The `Result` return type reserves the ability to surface real adapter
    /// query failures once live introspection is wired in.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Currently always returns `Ok`. Reserved for future backends that perform
    /// a fallible live adapter query.
    pub fn get_info(&self) -> Result<GpuDeviceInfo, GpuError> {
        Ok(GpuDeviceInfo::for_backend(self.backend))
    }
}

/// GPU kernel abstraction
pub struct GpuKernel {
    backend: GpuBackend,
    entry_point: String,
}

impl GpuKernel {
    /// Get the backend type
    pub fn backend(&self) -> GpuBackend {
        self.backend
    }

    /// Get the entry point name
    pub fn entry_point(&self) -> &str {
        &self.entry_point
    }
}

/// Convert GPU errors to core errors with semantic preservation
impl From<GpuError> for CoreError {
    fn from(err: GpuError) -> Self {
        match err {
            GpuError::BackendNotAvailable(backend) => CoreError::ComputationError(
                ErrorContext::new(format!("GPU backend {backend} is not available"))
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::UnsupportedBackend(backend) => CoreError::NotImplementedError(
                ErrorContext::new(format!("GPU backend {backend} is not supported"))
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::BackendNotSupported(backend) => CoreError::NotImplementedError(
                ErrorContext::new(format!(
                    "GPU backend {backend:?} is not supported for this kernel"
                ))
                .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::BackendNotImplemented(backend) => CoreError::NotImplementedError(
                ErrorContext::new(format!("GPU backend {backend} is not implemented yet"))
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::OutOfMemory(details) => CoreError::MemoryError(
                ErrorContext::new(details.to_string())
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::KernelCompilationError(msg) => CoreError::ComputationError(
                ErrorContext::new(msg.to_string())
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::KernelExecutionError(msg) => CoreError::ComputationError(
                ErrorContext::new(msg.to_string())
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::InvalidParameter(msg) => CoreError::InvalidArgument(
                ErrorContext::new(msg.to_string())
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::KernelNotFound(name) => CoreError::ComputationError(
                ErrorContext::new(name.to_string())
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::SpecializationNotSupported => CoreError::NotImplementedError(
                ErrorContext::new("Kernel specialization not supported".to_string())
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::UnsupportedDataType(dtype) => CoreError::TypeError(
                ErrorContext::new(format!("{dtype:?}"))
                    .with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
            GpuError::Other(msg) => CoreError::ComputationError(
                ErrorContext::new(msg).with_location(ErrorLocation::new(file!(), line!())),
            ),
        }
    }
}

/// Trait for types that can be used with GPU operations
pub trait GpuDataType: Copy + Send + Sync + 'static {}

/// GPU memory pointer abstraction
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct GpuPtr<T: GpuDataType> {
    ptr: u64,
    size: usize,
    phantom: PhantomData<T>,
}

impl<T: GpuDataType> GpuPtr<T> {
    /// Allocate GPU memory
    pub fn allocate(size: usize) -> Result<Self, GpuError> {
        Ok(GpuPtr {
            ptr: 0x1000_0000, // Placeholder address
            size,
            phantom: PhantomData,
        })
    }

    /// Get the raw pointer value
    pub fn as_ptr(&self) -> u64 {
        self.ptr
    }

    /// Get the size in elements
    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
        self.size
    }

    /// Check if the pointer is empty (size is 0)
    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
        self.size == 0
    }
}

/// Kernel argument types for GPU kernel execution
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub enum KernelArg<'a, T: GpuDataType> {
    /// Buffer argument
    Buffer(&'a GpuPtr<T>),
    /// Scalar argument
    Scalar(T),
}

/// Non-generic kernel argument for mixed-type kernel calls
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub enum DynamicKernelArg {
    /// Buffer argument (type-erased)
    Buffer(u64), // Raw pointer
    /// f32 scalar
    F32(f32),
    /// f64 scalar
    F64(f64),
    /// i32 scalar
    I32(i32),
    /// u32 scalar
    U32(u32),
    /// usize scalar
    Usize(usize),
}

/// GPU communication channel for multi-GPU operations
pub struct GpuChannel {
    #[allow(dead_code)]
    source_device: usize,
    #[allow(dead_code)]
    target_device: usize,
    #[allow(dead_code)]
    bandwidth: f64, // GB/s
}

// Implement for common types
impl GpuDataType for f32 {}
impl GpuDataType for f64 {}
impl GpuDataType for i32 {}
impl GpuDataType for u32 {}
impl GpuDataType for u8 {}
impl GpuDataType for i8 {}
impl GpuDataType for u16 {}
impl GpuDataType for i16 {}
impl GpuDataType for u64 {}
impl GpuDataType for i64 {}
impl GpuDataType for usize {}
impl GpuDataType for isize {}

/// GPU buffer
pub struct GpuBuffer<T: GpuDataType> {
    inner: Arc<dyn GpuBufferImpl>,
    size: usize,
    phantom: PhantomData<T>,
}

impl<T: GpuDataType> GpuBuffer<T> {
    /// Create a new buffer with the given size
    pub(crate) fn new(inner: Arc<dyn GpuBufferImpl>, size: usize) -> Self {
        Self {
            inner,
            size,
            phantom: PhantomData,
        }
    }

    /// Get the size of the buffer in elements
    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
        self.size
    }

    /// Check if the buffer is empty
    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
        self.size == 0
    }

    /// Copy data from the host to the device
    pub fn copy_from_host(&self, data: &[T]) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        if data.len() > self.size {
            return Err(GpuError::InvalidParameter(
                "Data size exceeds buffer size".to_string(),
            ));
        }
        unsafe {
            self.inner
                .copy_from_host(data.as_ptr() as *const u8, std::mem::size_of_val(data));
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Copy data from the device to the host
    pub fn copy_to_host(&self, data: &mut [T]) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        if data.len() > self.size {
            return Err(GpuError::InvalidParameter(
                "Data size exceeds buffer size".to_string(),
            ));
        }
        unsafe {
            self.inner
                .copy_to_host(data.as_mut_ptr() as *mut u8, std::mem::size_of_val(data));
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Convert the buffer contents to a vector
    pub fn to_vec(&self) -> Vec<T> {
        let mut result = vec![unsafe { std::mem::zeroed() }; self.size];
        let _ = self.copy_to_host(&mut result);
        result
    }
}

impl<T: GpuDataType> fmt::Debug for GpuBuffer<T> {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        f.debug_struct("GpuBuffer")
            .field("size", &self.size)
            .finish()
    }
}

impl<T: GpuDataType> Clone for GpuBuffer<T> {
    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
        Self {
            inner: Arc::clone(&self.inner),
            size: self.size,
            phantom: PhantomData,
        }
    }
}

/// GPU kernel handle
#[derive(Clone)]
pub struct GpuKernelHandle {
    inner: Arc<dyn GpuKernelImpl>,
}

impl GpuKernelHandle {
    /// Create a new kernel handle
    pub(crate) fn new(inner: Arc<dyn GpuKernelImpl>) -> Self {
        Self { inner }
    }

    /// Set a buffer parameter
    pub fn set_buffer<T: GpuDataType>(&self, name: &str, buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>) {
        self.inner.set_buffer(name, &buffer.inner);
    }

    /// Set a u32 parameter
    pub fn set_u32(&self, name: &str, value: u32) {
        self.inner.set_u32(name, value);
    }

    /// Set an i32 parameter
    pub fn set_i32(&self, name: &str, value: i32) {
        self.inner.set_i32(name, value);
    }

    /// Set an f32 parameter
    pub fn set_f32(&self, name: &str, value: f32) {
        self.inner.set_f32(name, value);
    }

    /// Set an f64 parameter
    pub fn set_f64(&self, name: &str, value: f64) {
        self.inner.set_f64(name, value);
    }

    /// Dispatch the kernel with the given work group counts.
    ///
    /// If batch mode is active (see [`GpuContext::begin_batch`]), the
    /// dispatch is encoded into the shared command buffer instead of
    /// submitting immediately.
    pub fn dispatch(&self, workgroups: [u32; 3]) {
        if !self.inner.try_batch_dispatch(workgroups) {
            self.inner.dispatch(workgroups);
        }
    }

    /// Dispatch the kernel without waiting for GPU completion.
    ///
    /// This submits work to the GPU command queue but returns immediately.
    /// Use [`GpuContext::gpu_sync()`] to wait for all pending dispatches.
    pub fn dispatch_no_wait(&self, workgroups: [u32; 3]) {
        self.inner.dispatch_no_wait(workgroups);
    }
}

/// GPU compiler for dynamic kernels
pub struct GpuCompiler {
    inner: Arc<dyn GpuCompilerImpl>,
}

impl GpuCompiler {
    /// Create a new compiler
    pub(crate) fn new(inner: Arc<dyn GpuCompilerImpl>) -> Self {
        Self { inner }
    }

    /// Compile a kernel from source
    pub fn compile(&self, source: &str) -> Result<GpuKernelHandle, GpuError> {
        let kernel = self.inner.compile(source)?;
        Ok(GpuKernelHandle::new(kernel))
    }

    /// Compile a kernel for the specified input and output types
    pub fn compile_kernel<I: GpuDataType, O: GpuDataType>(&self, name: &str) -> GpuKernelHandle {
        let kernel = self.inner.compile_typed(
            name,
            std::any::TypeId::of::<I>(),
            std::any::TypeId::of::<O>(),
        );
        GpuKernelHandle::new(kernel)
    }
}

/// GPU context for managing GPU resources and operations
pub struct GpuContext {
    inner: Arc<dyn GpuContextImpl>,
    backend: GpuBackend,
    kernel_registry: kernels::KernelRegistry,
}

impl GpuContext {
    /// Create a new GPU context with the specified backend
    pub fn new(backend: GpuBackend) -> Result<Self, GpuError> {
        // CUDA was retired from scirs2-core in 0.6.x (moved to the per-crate oxicuda-*
        // backends). Intercept it before the generic availability checks so callers
        // receive explicit migration guidance instead of a bare "not available".
        if backend == GpuBackend::Cuda {
            return Err(GpuError::BackendNotAvailable(
                "CUDA backend was removed from scirs2-core in 0.6.x; use the oxicuda-* crates directly (per-crate `cuda` feature). See SCIRS2_POLICY.md".to_string(),
            ));
        }

        // First check if the backend is available at compile time
        if !backend.is_available() {
            return Err(GpuError::BackendNotAvailable(backend.to_string()));
        }

        // For non-CPU backends, also check runtime availability
        if backend != GpuBackend::Cpu {
            let detection_result = backends::detect_gpu_backends();
            let backend_available = detection_result
                .devices
                .iter()
                .any(|d| d.backend == backend && d.backend != GpuBackend::Cpu);

            if !backend_available {
                return Err(GpuError::BackendNotAvailable(format!(
                    "{backend} (no devices detected at runtime)"
                )));
            }
        }

        let inner = match backend {
            GpuBackend::Cuda => {
                return Err(GpuError::BackendNotAvailable(
                    "CUDA backend was removed from scirs2-core in 0.6.x; use the oxicuda-* crates directly (per-crate `cuda` feature). See SCIRS2_POLICY.md".to_string(),
                ));
            }
            GpuBackend::Rocm => {
                #[cfg(feature = "rocm")]
                {
                    // This is just a stub - in a real implementation, we would use the hip-sys crate
                    // to create a ROCm context and return it
                    #[cfg(test)]
                    {
                        // For testing, we can use a mock implementation
                        Arc::new(CpuContext::new()) as Arc<dyn GpuContextImpl>
                    }
                    #[cfg(not(test))]
                    {
                        return Err(GpuError::BackendNotImplemented(backend));
                    }
                }
                #[cfg(not(feature = "rocm"))]
                {
                    return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedBackend(backend));
                }
            }
            GpuBackend::Wgpu => {
                #[cfg(feature = "wgpu")]
                {
                    use crate::gpu::backends::wgpu::WebGPUContext;
                    match WebGPUContext::new() {
                        Ok(ctx) => Arc::new(ctx) as Arc<dyn GpuContextImpl>,
                        Err(e) => return Err(e),
                    }
                }
                #[cfg(not(feature = "wgpu"))]
                {
                    return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedBackend(backend));
                }
            }
            GpuBackend::Metal => {
                #[cfg(all(feature = "metal", target_os = "macos"))]
                {
                    use crate::gpu::backends::metal::MetalContext;
                    match MetalContext::new() {
                        Ok(ctx) => Arc::new(ctx) as Arc<dyn GpuContextImpl>,
                        Err(e) => return Err(e),
                    }
                }
                #[cfg(not(all(feature = "metal", target_os = "macos")))]
                {
                    return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedBackend(backend));
                }
            }
            GpuBackend::OpenCL => {
                #[cfg(feature = "opencl")]
                {
                    use crate::gpu::backends::opencl::OpenCLContext;
                    match OpenCLContext::new() {
                        Ok(ctx) => Arc::new(ctx) as Arc<dyn GpuContextImpl>,
                        Err(e) => return Err(e),
                    }
                }
                #[cfg(not(feature = "opencl"))]
                {
                    return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedBackend(backend));
                }
            }
            GpuBackend::Cpu => Arc::new(CpuContext::new()) as Arc<dyn GpuContextImpl>,
        };

        Ok(Self {
            inner,
            backend,
            kernel_registry: kernels::KernelRegistry::with_default_kernels(),
        })
    }

    /// Get the backend type
    pub fn backend(&self) -> GpuBackend {
        self.backend
    }

    /// Get the backend name
    pub fn backend_name(&self) -> &str {
        match self.backend {
            GpuBackend::Cuda => "CUDA",
            GpuBackend::Rocm => "ROCm",
            GpuBackend::Wgpu => "WebGPU",
            GpuBackend::Metal => "Metal",
            GpuBackend::OpenCL => "OpenCL",
            GpuBackend::Cpu => "CPU",
        }
    }

    /// Wait for all pending GPU dispatches to complete.
    ///
    /// After calling [`GpuKernelHandle::dispatch_no_wait()`], results are
    /// not guaranteed to be available until this method returns.
    pub fn gpu_sync(&self) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        self.inner.gpu_sync()
    }

    /// Begin batch dispatch mode.
    ///
    /// While active, kernel dispatches are encoded into a shared command
    /// buffer instead of creating individual ones.  Call [`end_batch`](Self::end_batch)
    /// to submit all encoded work and wait for completion.
    pub fn begin_batch(&self) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        self.inner.begin_batch()
    }

    /// End batch dispatch mode.
    ///
    /// Submits the shared command buffer containing all dispatches that
    /// were encoded since [`begin_batch`](Self::begin_batch), then waits
    /// for the GPU to finish.
    pub fn end_batch(&self) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        self.inner.end_batch()
    }

    pub fn create_buffer<T: GpuDataType>(&self, size: usize) -> GpuBuffer<T> {
        let byte_size = size.saturating_mul(std::mem::size_of::<T>());
        let inner = self.inner.create_buffer(byte_size);
        GpuBuffer::new(inner, size)
    }

    /// Create a buffer from a slice
    pub fn create_buffer_from_slice<T: GpuDataType>(&self, data: &[T]) -> GpuBuffer<T> {
        let buffer = self.create_buffer::<T>(data.len());
        let _ = buffer.copy_from_host(data);
        buffer
    }

    /// Execute a function with a compiler
    pub fn execute<F, R>(&self, f: F) -> R
    where
        F: FnOnce(&GpuCompiler) -> R,
    {
        let compiler = GpuCompiler::new(self.inner.create_compiler());
        f(&compiler)
    }

    /// Get a kernel from the registry
    pub fn get_kernel(&self, name: &str) -> Result<GpuKernelHandle, GpuError> {
        let kernel = self
            .kernel_registry
            .get(name)
            .ok_or_else(|| GpuError::KernelNotFound(name.to_string()))?;

        let kernel_source = kernel.source_for_backend(self.backend)?;
        let metadata = kernel.metadata();

        let handle = self.compile_kernel_with_metadata(&kernel_source, &metadata)?;
        Ok(handle)
    }

    /// Get a specialized kernel from the registry
    pub fn get_specialized_kernel(
        &self,
        name: &str,
        params: &kernels::KernelParams,
    ) -> Result<GpuKernelHandle, GpuError> {
        let specialized = self.kernel_registry.get_specialized(name, params)?;
        let kernel_source = specialized.source_for_backend(self.backend)?;
        let metadata = specialized.metadata();

        let handle = self.compile_kernel_with_metadata(&kernel_source, &metadata)?;
        Ok(handle)
    }

    /// Compile a kernel with metadata
    fn compile_kernel_with_metadata(
        &self,
        source: &str,
        _metadata: &kernels::KernelMetadata,
    ) -> Result<GpuKernelHandle, GpuError> {
        self.execute(|compiler| compiler.compile(source))
    }

    /// Get available memory on the device
    pub fn get_available_memory(&self) -> Option<usize> {
        // In a real implementation, this would query the device
        // For now, return a placeholder value
        Some(1024 * 1024 * 1024) // 1GB
    }

    /// Get total memory on the device
    pub fn get_total_memory(&self) -> Option<usize> {
        // In a real implementation, this would query the device
        // For now, return a placeholder value
        #[cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
        return Some(512 * 1024 * 1024); // 512MB for WASM32

        #[cfg(not(target_arch = "wasm32"))]
        Some((4u64 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024) as usize) // 4GB for native
    }

    /// Launch a kernel with the given parameters
    pub fn launch_kernel(
        &self,
        kernel_name: &str,
        grid_size: (usize, usize, usize),
        block_size: (usize, usize, usize),
        args: &[DynamicKernelArg],
    ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        // Placeholder implementation
        let _ = (kernel_name, grid_size, block_size, args);
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Transfer data from host to device asynchronously
    pub fn transfer_async_host_to_device<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        ptr: &GpuPtr<T>,
        data: &[T],
    ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        // Placeholder implementation
        let _ = (ptr, data);
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Transfer data from host to device synchronously
    pub fn transfer_host_to_device<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        ptr: &GpuPtr<T>,
        data: &[T],
    ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        // Placeholder implementation
        let _ = (ptr, data);
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Transfer data from device to host asynchronously
    pub fn transfer_async_device_to_host<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        ptr: &GpuPtr<T>,
        data: &mut [T],
    ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        // Placeholder implementation
        let _ = (ptr, data);
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Transfer data from device to host synchronously
    pub fn transfer_device_to_host<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        ptr: &GpuPtr<T>,
        data: &mut [T],
    ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        // Placeholder implementation
        let _ = (ptr, data);
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Execute a kernel with dynamic compilation and parameter passing
    /// This method is expected by scirs2-vision for GPU operations
    pub fn execute_kernel(
        &self,
        source: &str,
        buffers: &[GpuBuffer<f32>],
        work_groups: (u32, u32, u32),
        int_params: &[u32],
        float_params: &[f32],
    ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        // For now, provide a basic implementation that logs the execution
        // In a real implementation, this would compile and execute the kernel
        eprintln!(
            "GPU kernel execution (source length: {}, buffers: {}, workgroups: {:?})",
            source.len(),
            buffers.len(),
            work_groups
        );
        eprintln!("Int params: {int_params:?}");
        eprintln!("Float params: {float_params:?}");
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Read data from a GPU buffer
    /// This method is expected by scirs2-vision for reading GPU results
    pub fn read_buffer<T: GpuDataType>(&self, buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>) -> Result<Vec<T>, GpuError> {
        Ok(buffer.to_vec())
    }

    /// Global sum reduction
    pub fn sum_all<T: GpuDataType>(&self, buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.sum_all_cpu_fallback(buffer)
    }

    /// Global mean reduction
    pub fn mean_all<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.mean_all_cpu_fallback(buffer)
    }

    /// Global max reduction
    pub fn max_all<T: GpuDataType>(&self, buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.max_all_cpu_fallback(buffer)
    }

    /// Global min reduction
    pub fn min_all<T: GpuDataType>(&self, buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.min_all_cpu_fallback(buffer)
    }

    /// Sum reduction along an axis
    pub fn sum_axis<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        shape: &[usize],
        axis: usize,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.sum_axis_cpu_fallback(buffer, shape, axis)
    }

    /// Mean reduction along an axis
    pub fn mean_axis<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        shape: &[usize],
        axis: usize,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.mean_axis_cpu_fallback(buffer, shape, axis)
    }

    /// Max reduction along an axis
    pub fn max_axis<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        shape: &[usize],
        axis: usize,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.max_axis_cpu_fallback(buffer, shape, axis)
    }

    /// Min reduction along an axis
    pub fn min_axis<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        shape: &[usize],
        axis: usize,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.min_axis_cpu_fallback(buffer, shape, axis)
    }

    /// Broadcast a buffer to a different shape
    pub fn broadcast<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        from_shape: &[usize],
        to_shape: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.broadcast_cpu_fallback(buffer, from_shape, to_shape)
    }

    /// Scale a buffer by a scalar value
    pub fn scale<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        buffer: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        scalar: T,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.scale_cpu_fallback(buffer, scalar)
    }

    /// General matrix multiplication: C = A @ B
    pub fn gemm<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        a: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        b: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        m: usize,
        k: usize,
        n: usize,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.gemm_cpu_fallback(a, b, m, k, n)
    }

    /// GEMM with transposed B: C = A @ B^T
    pub fn gemm_transpose_b<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        a: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        b: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        m: usize,
        k: usize,
        n: usize,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.gemm_transpose_b_cpu_fallback(a, b, m, k, n)
    }

    /// GEMM with transposed A: C = A^T @ B
    pub fn gemm_transpose_a<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        a: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        b: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        m: usize,
        k: usize,
        n: usize,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.gemm_transpose_a_cpu_fallback(a, b, m, k, n)
    }

    /// ReLU activation forward pass
    pub fn relu<T: GpuDataType>(&self, input: &GpuBuffer<T>) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.relu_cpu_fallback(input)
    }

    /// ReLU backward pass
    pub fn relu_backward<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        grad_output: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        input: &GpuBuffer<T>,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.relu_backward_cpu_fallback(grad_output, input)
    }

    /// Sigmoid activation forward pass
    pub fn sigmoid<T: GpuDataType>(&self, input: &GpuBuffer<T>) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.sigmoid_cpu_fallback(input)
    }

    /// Sigmoid backward pass
    pub fn sigmoid_backward<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        grad_output: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        input: &GpuBuffer<T>,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.sigmoid_backward_cpu_fallback(grad_output, input)
    }

    /// Tanh activation forward pass
    pub fn tanh<T: GpuDataType>(&self, input: &GpuBuffer<T>) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.tanh_cpu_fallback(input)
    }

    /// Tanh backward pass
    pub fn tanh_backward<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        grad_output: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        input: &GpuBuffer<T>,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.tanh_backward_cpu_fallback(grad_output, input)
    }

    /// GELU activation forward pass
    pub fn gelu<T: GpuDataType>(&self, input: &GpuBuffer<T>) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.gelu_cpu_fallback(input)
    }

    /// GELU backward pass
    pub fn gelu_backward<T: GpuDataType>(
        &self,
        grad_output: &GpuBuffer<T>,
        input: &GpuBuffer<T>,
    ) -> Result<GpuBuffer<T>, GpuError> {
        self.gelu_backward_cpu_fallback(grad_output, input)
    }
}

impl fmt::Debug for GpuContext {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        f.debug_struct("GpuContext")
            .field("backend", &self.backend)
            .finish()
    }
}

// The following trait definitions would be implemented by backend-specific
// code in a real implementation

/// GPU buffer implementation trait
pub(crate) trait GpuBufferImpl: Send + Sync {
    /// Copy data from host to device
    unsafe fn copy_from_host(&self, data: *const u8, size: usize);

    /// Copy data from device to host
    unsafe fn copy_to_host(&self, data: *mut u8, size: usize);

    /// Get a reference to self as Any for downcasting
    #[allow(dead_code)]
    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any;

    /// Get the size of the buffer in bytes
    #[allow(dead_code)]
    fn size(&self) -> usize {
        0 // Default implementation for backward compatibility
    }

    /// Get the device pointer (for backends that use device pointers)
    #[allow(dead_code)]
    fn device_ptr(&self) -> u64 {
        0 // Default implementation for backward compatibility
    }
}

/// GPU kernel implementation trait
pub(crate) trait GpuKernelImpl: Send + Sync {
    /// Set a buffer parameter
    fn set_buffer(&self, name: &str, buffer: &Arc<dyn GpuBufferImpl>);

    /// Set a u32 parameter
    fn set_u32(&self, name: &str, value: u32);

    /// Set an i32 parameter
    fn set_i32(&self, name: &str, value: i32);

    /// Set an f32 parameter
    fn set_f32(&self, name: &str, value: f32);

    /// Set an f64 parameter
    fn set_f64(&self, name: &str, value: f64);

    /// Dispatch the kernel
    fn dispatch(&self, workgroups: [u32; 3]);

    /// Dispatch the kernel without waiting for completion.
    /// The GPU work is submitted and will execute asynchronously.
    /// Call `gpu_sync()` on the context to wait for all pending work.
    fn dispatch_no_wait(&self, workgroups: [u32; 3]) {
        // Default: fall back to synchronous dispatch
        self.dispatch(workgroups);
    }

    /// Try to encode a dispatch into the active batch (if any).
    ///
    /// Returns `true` if the dispatch was batched, `false` if no batch is
    /// active and the caller should use the normal `dispatch()` path.
    fn try_batch_dispatch(&self, _workgroups: [u32; 3]) -> bool {
        false
    }
}

/// GPU compiler implementation trait
pub(crate) trait GpuCompilerImpl: Send + Sync {
    /// Compile a kernel from source
    fn compile(&self, source: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn GpuKernelImpl>, GpuError>;

    /// Compile a typed kernel
    fn compile_typed(
        &self,
        name: &str,
        input_type: std::any::TypeId,
        output_type: std::any::TypeId,
    ) -> Arc<dyn GpuKernelImpl>;
}

/// GPU context implementation trait
pub(crate) trait GpuContextImpl: Send + Sync {
    /// Create a buffer
    fn create_buffer(&self, size: usize) -> Arc<dyn GpuBufferImpl>;

    /// Create a compiler
    fn create_compiler(&self) -> Arc<dyn GpuCompilerImpl>;

    /// Wait for all pending GPU operations to complete.
    fn gpu_sync(&self) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        Ok(()) // Default: no-op (synchronous backends already block)
    }

    /// Begin batch dispatch mode.
    ///
    /// While active, kernel dispatches are encoded into a shared command
    /// buffer instead of creating individual ones.
    fn begin_batch(&self) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        Ok(()) // Default: no-op (backends without batch support)
    }

    /// End batch dispatch mode.
    ///
    /// Submits the shared command buffer and waits for all encoded
    /// dispatches to complete on the GPU.
    fn end_batch(&self) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
        Ok(()) // Default: no-op
    }

    /// Support dynamic downcasting of concrete context implementations
    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any
    where
        Self: 'static + Sized,
    {
        self
    }
}

// CPU fallback implementation

/// CPU context implementation
struct CpuContext;

impl CpuContext {
    /// Create a new CPU context
    fn new() -> Self {
        Self
    }
}

impl GpuContextImpl for CpuContext {
    fn create_buffer(&self, size: usize) -> Arc<dyn GpuBufferImpl> {
        Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(size))
    }

    fn create_compiler(&self) -> Arc<dyn GpuCompilerImpl> {
        Arc::new(CpuCompiler)
    }
}

/// CPU buffer implementation
struct CpuBuffer {
    data: Vec<u8>,
}

impl CpuBuffer {
    /// Create a new CPU buffer
    fn new(size: usize) -> Self {
        Self {
            data: vec![0; size],
        }
    }
}

impl GpuBufferImpl for CpuBuffer {
    unsafe fn copy_from_host(&self, data: *const u8, size: usize) {
        let mut_self = self as *const Self as *mut Self;
        let data_ptr = (*mut_self).data.as_mut_ptr();
        std::ptr::copy_nonoverlapping(data, data_ptr, size);
    }

    unsafe fn copy_to_host(&self, data: *mut u8, size: usize) {
        let data_ptr = self.data.as_ptr();
        std::ptr::copy_nonoverlapping(data_ptr, data, size);
    }

    fn as_any(&self) -> &dyn std::any::Any {
        self
    }

    fn size(&self) -> usize {
        self.data.len()
    }

    fn device_ptr(&self) -> u64 {
        self.data.as_ptr() as u64
    }
}

/// CPU compiler implementation
struct CpuCompiler;

impl GpuCompilerImpl for CpuCompiler {
    fn compile(&self, source: &str) -> Result<Arc<dyn GpuKernelImpl>, GpuError> {
        // In a real implementation, we would parse and execute the kernel
        // For now, just return a dummy implementation
        Ok(Arc::new(CpuKernel))
    }

    fn compile_typed(
        &self,
        _name: &str,
        _input_type: std::any::TypeId,
        _output_type: std::any::TypeId,
    ) -> Arc<dyn GpuKernelImpl> {
        // In a real implementation, we would select an appropriate implementation
        // For now, just return a dummy implementation
        Arc::new(CpuKernel)
    }
}

/// CPU kernel implementation
struct CpuKernel;

impl GpuKernelImpl for CpuKernel {
    fn set_buffer(&self, _name: &str, buffer: &Arc<dyn GpuBufferImpl>) {
        // In a real implementation, we would store the buffer
    }

    fn set_u32(&self, _name: &str, value: u32) {
        // In a real implementation, we would store the value
    }

    fn set_i32(&self, _name: &str, value: i32) {
        // In a real implementation, we would store the value
    }

    fn set_f32(&self, _name: &str, value: f32) {
        // In a real implementation, we would store the value
    }

    fn set_f64(&self, _name: &str, value: f64) {
        // In a real implementation, we would store the value
    }

    fn dispatch(&self, workgroups: [u32; 3]) {
        // In a real implementation, we would execute the kernel
    }
}

// In a real implementation, we would have implementations for other backends
// such as CUDA, WebGPU, Metal, and OpenCL.

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_backend_preferred() {
        let backend = GpuBackend::preferred();
        // Should return a valid backend
        match backend {
            GpuBackend::Cuda
            | GpuBackend::Rocm
            | GpuBackend::Wgpu
            | GpuBackend::Metal
            | GpuBackend::OpenCL
            | GpuBackend::Cpu => {}
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_backend_default() {
        let backend = GpuBackend::default();
        assert_eq!(backend, GpuBackend::preferred());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_backend_is_available() {
        let backend = GpuBackend::Cpu;
        assert!(backend.is_available());

        // Test other backends - availability depends on runtime, not just feature flags
        // CUDA backend was retired from scirs2-core in 0.6.x — always unavailable now.
        assert!(!GpuBackend::Cuda.is_available());

        #[cfg(feature = "rocm")]
        {
            // ROCm feature enabled doesn't guarantee runtime availability
            let _ = GpuBackend::Rocm.is_available(); // Just check without asserting
        }
        #[cfg(not(feature = "rocm"))]
        assert!(!GpuBackend::Rocm.is_available());

        #[cfg(all(feature = "metal", target_os = "macos"))]
        assert!(GpuBackend::Metal.is_available());
        #[cfg(not(all(feature = "metal", target_os = "macos")))]
        assert!(!GpuBackend::Metal.is_available());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_backend_display() {
        assert_eq!(GpuBackend::Cuda.to_string(), "CUDA");
        assert_eq!(GpuBackend::Rocm.to_string(), "ROCm");
        assert_eq!(GpuBackend::Wgpu.to_string(), "WebGPU");
        assert_eq!(GpuBackend::Metal.to_string(), "Metal");
        assert_eq!(GpuBackend::OpenCL.to_string(), "OpenCL");
        assert_eq!(GpuBackend::Cpu.to_string(), "CPU");
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpuerror_from_conversion() {
        let gpuerror = GpuError::BackendNotAvailable("CUDA".to_string());
        let coreerror: CoreError = gpuerror.into();
        match coreerror {
            CoreError::ComputationError(_) => {}
            _ => panic!("Expected ComputationError"),
        }

        let gpuerror = GpuError::OutOfMemory("8GB required".to_string());
        let coreerror: CoreError = gpuerror.into();
        match coreerror {
            CoreError::MemoryError(_) => {}
            _ => panic!("Expected MemoryError"),
        }

        let gpuerror = GpuError::InvalidParameter("batch_size must be > 0".to_string());
        let coreerror: CoreError = gpuerror.into();
        match coreerror {
            CoreError::InvalidArgument(_) => {}
            _ => panic!("Expected InvalidArgument"),
        }

        let gpuerror = GpuError::UnsupportedDataType(kernels::DataType::Float16);
        let coreerror: CoreError = gpuerror.into();
        match coreerror {
            CoreError::TypeError(_) => {}
            _ => panic!("Expected TypeError"),
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_datatype_trait() {
        // Test that various types implement GpuDataType
        fn assert_gpu_datatype<T: GpuDataType>() {}

        assert_gpu_datatype::<f32>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<f64>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<i32>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<u32>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<u8>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<i8>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<u16>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<i16>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<u64>();
        assert_gpu_datatype::<i64>();
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_buffer_creation() {
        let inner = Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(100));
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(inner, 25);

        assert_eq!(buffer.len(), 25);
        assert!(!buffer.is_empty());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_buffer_empty() {
        let inner = Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(0));
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(inner, 0);

        assert_eq!(buffer.len(), 0);
        assert!(buffer.is_empty());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_buffer_copy_operations() {
        let inner = Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(16));
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(inner, 4);

        let data = vec![1.0f32, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
        let _ = buffer.copy_from_host(&data);

        let mut result = vec![0.0f32; 4];
        let _ = buffer.copy_to_host(&mut result);

        assert_eq!(result, data);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_buffer_to_vec() {
        let inner = Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(12));
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(inner, 3);

        let data = vec![5.0f32, 6.0, 7.0];
        let _ = buffer.copy_from_host(&data);

        let result = buffer.to_vec();
        assert_eq!(result, data);
    }

    #[test]
    #[should_panic(expected = "Data size exceeds buffer size")]
    fn test_gpu_buffer_copy_from_host_overflow() {
        let inner = Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(8));
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(inner, 2);

        let data = vec![1.0f32, 2.0, 3.0]; // 3 elements > 2 buffer size
        buffer.copy_from_host(&data).expect("Operation failed");
    }

    #[test]
    #[should_panic(expected = "Data size exceeds buffer size")]
    fn test_gpu_buffer_copy_to_host_overflow() {
        let inner = Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(8));
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(inner, 2);

        let mut data = vec![0.0f32; 3]; // 3 elements > 2 buffer size
        buffer.copy_to_host(&mut data).expect("Operation failed");
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_kernel_handle() {
        let kernel = Arc::new(CpuKernel);
        let handle = GpuKernelHandle::new(kernel);

        // Test setting various parameter types
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(16)), 4);
        handle.set_buffer("input", &buffer);
        handle.set_u32("size", 100);
        handle.set_i32("offset", -5);
        handle.set_f32("scale", 2.5);
        handle.set_f64("precision", 0.0001);

        // Test dispatch
        handle.dispatch([16, 8, 1]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_context_cpu_backend() {
        let context = GpuContext::new(GpuBackend::Cpu).expect("Operation failed");
        assert_eq!(context.backend(), GpuBackend::Cpu);
        assert_eq!(context.backend_name(), "CPU");

        // Test memory query methods
        assert_eq!(context.get_available_memory(), Some(1024 * 1024 * 1024));
        assert_eq!(context.get_total_memory(), Some(4 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_context_buffer_creation() {
        let context = GpuContext::new(GpuBackend::Cpu).expect("Operation failed");

        let buffer = context.create_buffer::<f32>(100);
        assert_eq!(buffer.len(), 100);

        let data = vec![1.0f32; 50];
        let buffer_from_slice = context.create_buffer_from_slice(&data);
        assert_eq!(buffer_from_slice.len(), 50);

        let result = buffer_from_slice.to_vec();
        assert_eq!(result, data);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_context_unsupported_backend() {
        // CUDA was retired from scirs2-core in 0.6.x; constructing a context for it
        // must fail with explicit oxicuda migration guidance.
        let result = GpuContext::new(GpuBackend::Cuda);
        match result {
            Err(GpuError::BackendNotAvailable(msg)) => {
                assert!(
                    msg.contains("oxicuda"),
                    "expected oxicuda guidance, got: {msg}"
                );
            }
            other => {
                panic!("expected BackendNotAvailable for retired CUDA backend, got: {other:?}")
            }
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_compiler() {
        let compiler_impl = Arc::new(CpuCompiler);
        let compiler = GpuCompiler::new(compiler_impl);

        // Test compiling from source
        let kernel = compiler
            .compile("dummy kernel source")
            .expect("Operation failed");
        kernel.dispatch([1, 1, 1]);

        // Test typed compilation
        let typed_kernel = compiler.compile_kernel::<f32, f32>("vector_add");
        typed_kernel.dispatch([32, 1, 1]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_context_execute() {
        let context = GpuContext::new(GpuBackend::Cpu).expect("Operation failed");

        let result = context.execute(|compiler| compiler.compile("test kernel").is_ok());

        assert!(result);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_context_kernel_registry() {
        let context = GpuContext::new(GpuBackend::Cpu).expect("Operation failed");

        // Test getting a non-existent kernel
        let result = context.get_kernel("non_existent_kernel");
        assert!(result.is_err());
        match result {
            Err(GpuError::KernelNotFound(_)) => {}
            _ => panic!("Expected KernelNotFound error"),
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_cpu_buffer_implementation() {
        let buffer = CpuBuffer::new(256);
        assert_eq!(buffer.data.len(), 256);

        // Test that initial data is zeroed
        assert!(buffer.data.iter().all(|&b| b == 0));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpuerror_display() {
        let error = GpuError::BackendNotAvailable("CUDA".to_string());
        assert_eq!(error.to_string(), "GPU backend CUDA is not available");

        let error = GpuError::OutOfMemory("allocation failed".to_string());
        assert_eq!(error.to_string(), "GPU out of memory: allocation failed");

        let error = GpuError::KernelCompilationError("syntax error".to_string());
        assert_eq!(error.to_string(), "Kernel compilation error: syntax error");

        let error = GpuError::KernelNotFound("gemm".to_string());
        assert_eq!(error.to_string(), "Kernel not found: gemm");
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_backend_equality() {
        assert_eq!(GpuBackend::Cuda, GpuBackend::Cuda);
        assert_ne!(GpuBackend::Cuda, GpuBackend::Rocm);

        // Test Clone and Copy
        let backend = GpuBackend::Metal;
        let cloned = backend;
        let copied = backend;
        assert_eq!(backend, cloned);
        assert_eq!(backend, copied);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_backend_hash() {
        use std::collections::HashSet;

        let mut set = HashSet::new();
        set.insert(GpuBackend::Cuda);
        set.insert(GpuBackend::Rocm);
        set.insert(GpuBackend::Cuda); // Duplicate

        assert_eq!(set.len(), 2); // Should only have 2 unique entries
        assert!(set.contains(&GpuBackend::Cuda));
        assert!(set.contains(&GpuBackend::Rocm));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_buffer_debug_clone() {
        let inner = Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(16));
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(inner, 4);

        // Test Debug implementation
        let debug_str = format!("{:?}", buffer);
        assert!(debug_str.contains("GpuBuffer"));
        assert!(debug_str.contains("size"));

        // Test Clone implementation
        let cloned = buffer.clone();
        assert_eq!(cloned.len(), buffer.len());
        assert_eq!(cloned.len(), 4);

        // Verify the clone is independent (shares the same Arc)
        let data = vec![1.0f32, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
        let _ = buffer.copy_from_host(&data);

        let mut result = vec![0.0f32; 4];
        let _ = cloned.copy_to_host(&mut result);
        assert_eq!(result, data);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_context_debug() {
        let context = GpuContext::new(GpuBackend::Cpu).expect("Failed to create context");

        // Test Debug implementation
        let debug_str = format!("{:?}", context);
        assert!(debug_str.contains("GpuContext"));
        assert!(debug_str.contains("backend"));
        assert!(debug_str.contains("Cpu"));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_context_batch_dispatch() {
        // Create context with CPU backend (always available)
        let context = GpuContext::new(GpuBackend::Cpu).expect("Failed to create CPU context");

        // Begin batch mode
        let begin_result = context.begin_batch();
        assert!(
            begin_result.is_ok(),
            "begin_batch should succeed on CPU backend"
        );

        // Compile a kernel and dispatch it inside the batch
        let dispatch_result = context.execute(|compiler| {
            compiler.compile("dummy kernel source").map(|kernel| {
                kernel.dispatch([4, 1, 1]);
            })
        });
        assert!(
            dispatch_result.is_ok(),
            "kernel dispatch inside batch should succeed"
        );

        // End batch — submits and waits
        let end_result = context.end_batch();
        assert!(
            end_result.is_ok(),
            "end_batch should succeed on CPU backend"
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_context_gpu_sync() {
        // Create context with CPU backend
        let context = GpuContext::new(GpuBackend::Cpu).expect("Failed to create CPU context");

        // gpu_sync should complete without error on CPU backend
        let result = context.gpu_sync();
        assert!(result.is_ok(), "gpu_sync should return Ok on CPU backend");
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_kernel_dispatch_no_wait() {
        // Create a kernel handle backed by CpuKernel
        let kernel = Arc::new(CpuKernel);
        let handle = GpuKernelHandle::new(kernel);

        // Bind a buffer and scalar so the kernel has state
        let buffer = GpuBuffer::<f32>::new(Arc::new(CpuBuffer::new(16)), 4);
        handle.set_buffer("input", &buffer);
        handle.set_u32("size", 4);

        // dispatch_no_wait returns () — just verify no panic
        handle.dispatch_no_wait([4, 1, 1]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_device_get_info_cpu() {
        let device = GpuDevice::new(GpuBackend::Cpu, 0);
        let info = device
            .get_info()
            .expect("get_info should succeed for the CPU backend");

        // Backend and basic identity must round-trip.
        assert_eq!(info.backend, GpuBackend::Cpu);
        assert_eq!(info.device_name, "CPU");
        assert_eq!(info.device_type, "CPU");

        // The struct must be well-formed: non-empty descriptors and a valid
        // work-group size. The CPU fallback emulates both precisions.
        assert!(!info.device_name.is_empty());
        assert!(!info.compute_capability.is_empty());
        assert!(info.max_work_group_size >= 1);
        assert!(info.supports_fp64);
        assert!(info.supports_fp16);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_gpu_device_info_is_deterministic_per_backend() {
        // Every backend must yield a well-formed, non-empty, deterministic info.
        for backend in [
            GpuBackend::Cpu,
            GpuBackend::Cuda,
            GpuBackend::Rocm,
            GpuBackend::Wgpu,
            GpuBackend::Metal,
            GpuBackend::OpenCL,
        ] {
            let device = GpuDevice::new(backend, 0);
            let info = device.get_info().expect("get_info should not fail");
            let info_again = device.get_info().expect("get_info should not fail");

            assert_eq!(info.backend, backend);
            assert!(!info.device_name.is_empty());
            assert!(!info.device_type.is_empty());
            assert!(!info.compute_capability.is_empty());
            assert!(info.max_work_group_size >= 1);

            // Deterministic: two queries produce identical descriptors.
            assert_eq!(info.device_name, info_again.device_name);
            assert_eq!(info.max_work_group_size, info_again.max_work_group_size);
            assert_eq!(info.supports_fp64, info_again.supports_fp64);
        }
    }
}