quantrs2_sim/

autodiff_vqe.rs

//! Automatic differentiation for Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE).
//!
//! This module implements automatic differentiation techniques specifically designed
//! for variational quantum algorithms, including parameter-shift rule, finite differences,
//! and optimization strategies for VQE.

use ndarray::{Array1, Array2};
use num_complex::Complex64;
use std::f64::consts::PI;

use crate::error::{Result, SimulatorError};
use crate::pauli::{PauliOperatorSum, PauliString};
use crate::statevector::StateVectorSimulator;
use quantrs2_core::gate::GateOp;

/// Gradient computation method
#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
pub enum GradientMethod {
    /// Parameter-shift rule (exact for quantum gates)
    ParameterShift,
    /// Finite differences
    FiniteDifference { step_size: f64 },
    /// Simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation
    SPSA { step_size: f64 },
}

/// Automatic differentiation context for tracking gradients
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct AutoDiffContext {
    /// Parameter values
    pub parameters: Vec<f64>,
    /// Parameter names/indices
    pub parameter_names: Vec<String>,
    /// Gradient computation method
    pub method: GradientMethod,
    /// Current gradients
    pub gradients: Vec<f64>,
    /// Gradient computation count
    pub grad_evaluations: usize,
    /// Function evaluation count
    pub func_evaluations: usize,
}

impl AutoDiffContext {
    /// Create new autodiff context
    pub fn new(parameters: Vec<f64>, method: GradientMethod) -> Self {
        let num_params = parameters.len();
        Self {
            parameters,
            parameter_names: (0..num_params).map(|i| format!("θ{}", i)).collect(),
            method,
            gradients: vec![0.0; num_params],
            grad_evaluations: 0,
            func_evaluations: 0,
        }
    }

    /// Set parameter names
    pub fn with_parameter_names(mut self, names: Vec<String>) -> Self {
        assert_eq!(names.len(), self.parameters.len());
        self.parameter_names = names;
        self
    }

    /// Update parameters
    pub fn update_parameters(&mut self, new_params: Vec<f64>) {
        assert_eq!(new_params.len(), self.parameters.len());
        self.parameters = new_params;
    }

    /// Get parameter by name
    pub fn get_parameter(&self, name: &str) -> Option<f64> {
        self.parameter_names
            .iter()
            .position(|n| n == name)
            .map(|i| self.parameters[i])
    }

    /// Set parameter by name
    pub fn set_parameter(&mut self, name: &str, value: f64) -> Result<()> {
        if let Some(i) = self.parameter_names.iter().position(|n| n == name) {
            self.parameters[i] = value;
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(SimulatorError::InvalidInput(format!(
                "Parameter '{}' not found",
                name
            )))
        }
    }
}

/// Parametric quantum gate that supports automatic differentiation
pub trait ParametricGate: Send + Sync {
    /// Get gate name
    fn name(&self) -> &str;

    /// Get qubits this gate acts on
    fn qubits(&self) -> Vec<usize>;

    /// Get parameter indices this gate depends on
    fn parameter_indices(&self) -> Vec<usize>;

    /// Evaluate gate matrix given parameter values
    fn matrix(&self, params: &[f64]) -> Result<Array2<Complex64>>;

    /// Compute gradient of gate matrix with respect to each parameter
    fn gradient(&self, params: &[f64], param_idx: usize) -> Result<Array2<Complex64>>;

    /// Apply parameter-shift rule for this gate
    fn parameter_shift_gradient(
        &self,
        params: &[f64],
        param_idx: usize,
    ) -> Result<(Array2<Complex64>, Array2<Complex64>)> {
        let shift = PI / 2.0;
        let mut params_plus = params.to_vec();
        let mut params_minus = params.to_vec();

        if param_idx < params.len() {
            params_plus[param_idx] += shift;
            params_minus[param_idx] -= shift;
        }

        let matrix_plus = self.matrix(&params_plus)?;
        let matrix_minus = self.matrix(&params_minus)?;

        Ok((matrix_plus, matrix_minus))
    }
}

/// Parametric rotation gates
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct ParametricRX {
    pub qubit: usize,
    pub param_idx: usize,
}

impl ParametricGate for ParametricRX {
    fn name(&self) -> &str {
        "RX"
    }

    fn qubits(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
        vec![self.qubit]
    }

    fn parameter_indices(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
        vec![self.param_idx]
    }

    fn matrix(&self, params: &[f64]) -> Result<Array2<Complex64>> {
        let theta = params[self.param_idx];
        let cos_half = (theta / 2.0).cos();
        let sin_half = (theta / 2.0).sin();

        Ok(ndarray::array![
            [Complex64::new(cos_half, 0.), Complex64::new(0., -sin_half)],
            [Complex64::new(0., -sin_half), Complex64::new(cos_half, 0.)]
        ])
    }

    fn gradient(&self, params: &[f64], param_idx: usize) -> Result<Array2<Complex64>> {
        if param_idx != self.param_idx {
            return Ok(Array2::zeros((2, 2)));
        }

        let theta = params[self.param_idx];
        let cos_half = (theta / 2.0).cos();
        let sin_half = (theta / 2.0).sin();

        // d/dθ RX(θ) = -i/2 * X * RX(θ)
        Ok(ndarray::array![
            [
                Complex64::new(-sin_half / 2.0, 0.),
                Complex64::new(0., -cos_half / 2.0)
            ],
            [
                Complex64::new(0., -cos_half / 2.0),
                Complex64::new(-sin_half / 2.0, 0.)
            ]
        ])
    }
}

#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct ParametricRY {
    pub qubit: usize,
    pub param_idx: usize,
}

impl ParametricGate for ParametricRY {
    fn name(&self) -> &str {
        "RY"
    }

    fn qubits(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
        vec![self.qubit]
    }

    fn parameter_indices(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
        vec![self.param_idx]
    }

    fn matrix(&self, params: &[f64]) -> Result<Array2<Complex64>> {
        let theta = params[self.param_idx];
        let cos_half = (theta / 2.0).cos();
        let sin_half = (theta / 2.0).sin();

        Ok(ndarray::array![
            [Complex64::new(cos_half, 0.), Complex64::new(-sin_half, 0.)],
            [Complex64::new(sin_half, 0.), Complex64::new(cos_half, 0.)]
        ])
    }

    fn gradient(&self, params: &[f64], param_idx: usize) -> Result<Array2<Complex64>> {
        if param_idx != self.param_idx {
            return Ok(Array2::zeros((2, 2)));
        }

        let theta = params[self.param_idx];
        let cos_half = (theta / 2.0).cos();
        let sin_half = (theta / 2.0).sin();

        Ok(ndarray::array![
            [
                Complex64::new(-sin_half / 2.0, 0.),
                Complex64::new(-cos_half / 2.0, 0.)
            ],
            [
                Complex64::new(cos_half / 2.0, 0.),
                Complex64::new(-sin_half / 2.0, 0.)
            ]
        ])
    }
}

#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct ParametricRZ {
    pub qubit: usize,
    pub param_idx: usize,
}

impl ParametricGate for ParametricRZ {
    fn name(&self) -> &str {
        "RZ"
    }

    fn qubits(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
        vec![self.qubit]
    }

    fn parameter_indices(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
        vec![self.param_idx]
    }

    fn matrix(&self, params: &[f64]) -> Result<Array2<Complex64>> {
        let theta = params[self.param_idx];
        let exp_pos = Complex64::from_polar(1.0, theta / 2.0);
        let exp_neg = Complex64::from_polar(1.0, -theta / 2.0);

        Ok(ndarray::array![
            [exp_neg, Complex64::new(0., 0.)],
            [Complex64::new(0., 0.), exp_pos]
        ])
    }

    fn gradient(&self, params: &[f64], param_idx: usize) -> Result<Array2<Complex64>> {
        if param_idx != self.param_idx {
            return Ok(Array2::zeros((2, 2)));
        }

        let theta = params[self.param_idx];
        let exp_pos = Complex64::from_polar(1.0, theta / 2.0);
        let exp_neg = Complex64::from_polar(1.0, -theta / 2.0);

        Ok(ndarray::array![
            [exp_neg * Complex64::new(0., -0.5), Complex64::new(0., 0.)],
            [Complex64::new(0., 0.), exp_pos * Complex64::new(0., 0.5)]
        ])
    }
}

/// Parametric quantum circuit for VQE
pub struct ParametricCircuit {
    /// Sequence of parametric gates
    pub gates: Vec<Box<dyn ParametricGate>>,
    /// Number of qubits
    pub num_qubits: usize,
    /// Number of parameters
    pub num_parameters: usize,
}

impl ParametricCircuit {
    /// Create new parametric circuit
    pub fn new(num_qubits: usize) -> Self {
        Self {
            gates: Vec::new(),
            num_qubits,
            num_parameters: 0,
        }
    }

    /// Add a parametric gate
    pub fn add_gate(&mut self, gate: Box<dyn ParametricGate>) {
        // Update parameter count
        for &param_idx in &gate.parameter_indices() {
            self.num_parameters = self.num_parameters.max(param_idx + 1);
        }
        self.gates.push(gate);
    }

    /// Add RX gate
    pub fn rx(&mut self, qubit: usize, param_idx: usize) {
        self.add_gate(Box::new(ParametricRX { qubit, param_idx }));
    }

    /// Add RY gate
    pub fn ry(&mut self, qubit: usize, param_idx: usize) {
        self.add_gate(Box::new(ParametricRY { qubit, param_idx }));
    }

    /// Add RZ gate
    pub fn rz(&mut self, qubit: usize, param_idx: usize) {
        self.add_gate(Box::new(ParametricRZ { qubit, param_idx }));
    }

    /// Evaluate circuit for given parameters and return final state
    pub fn evaluate(&self, params: &[f64]) -> Result<Array1<Complex64>> {
        if params.len() != self.num_parameters {
            return Err(SimulatorError::InvalidInput(format!(
                "Expected {} parameters, got {}",
                self.num_parameters,
                params.len()
            )));
        }

        // Initialize state vector simulator
        let mut simulator = StateVectorSimulator::new();

        // Apply gates sequentially
        for gate in &self.gates {
            let matrix = gate.matrix(params)?;
            let qubits = gate.qubits();

            if qubits.len() == 1 {
                // Single-qubit gate - would need proper simulator integration
                // For now, this is a placeholder
            } else if qubits.len() == 2 {
                // Two-qubit gate - would need proper simulator integration
                // For now, this is a placeholder
            }
        }

        // Return placeholder state for now
        let mut state = Array1::zeros(1 << self.num_qubits);
        state[0] = Complex64::new(1.0, 0.0); // |0...0>
        Ok(state)
    }

    /// Compute gradient of expectation value using parameter-shift rule
    pub fn gradient_expectation(
        &self,
        observable: &PauliOperatorSum,
        params: &[f64],
        method: GradientMethod,
    ) -> Result<Vec<f64>> {
        match method {
            GradientMethod::ParameterShift => self.parameter_shift_gradient(observable, params),
            GradientMethod::FiniteDifference { step_size } => {
                self.finite_difference_gradient(observable, params, step_size)
            }
            GradientMethod::SPSA { step_size } => self.spsa_gradient(observable, params, step_size),
        }
    }

    /// Parameter-shift rule gradient computation
    fn parameter_shift_gradient(
        &self,
        observable: &PauliOperatorSum,
        params: &[f64],
    ) -> Result<Vec<f64>> {
        let mut gradients = vec![0.0; self.num_parameters];

        // Use parameter-shift rule: ∂⟨H⟩/∂θᵢ = (⟨H⟩₊ - ⟨H⟩₋) / 2
        // where ±π/2 shifts are applied to parameter θᵢ

        for param_idx in 0..self.num_parameters {
            let shift = PI / 2.0;

            // Forward shift
            let mut params_plus = params.to_vec();
            params_plus[param_idx] += shift;
            let state_plus = self.evaluate(&params_plus)?;
            let expectation_plus = compute_expectation_value(&state_plus, observable)?;

            // Backward shift
            let mut params_minus = params.to_vec();
            params_minus[param_idx] -= shift;
            let state_minus = self.evaluate(&params_minus)?;
            let expectation_minus = compute_expectation_value(&state_minus, observable)?;

            // Gradient
            gradients[param_idx] = (expectation_plus - expectation_minus) / 2.0;
        }

        Ok(gradients)
    }

    /// Finite difference gradient computation
    fn finite_difference_gradient(
        &self,
        observable: &PauliOperatorSum,
        params: &[f64],
        step_size: f64,
    ) -> Result<Vec<f64>> {
        let mut gradients = vec![0.0; self.num_parameters];

        for param_idx in 0..self.num_parameters {
            // Forward difference
            let mut params_plus = params.to_vec();
            params_plus[param_idx] += step_size;
            let state_plus = self.evaluate(&params_plus)?;
            let expectation_plus = compute_expectation_value(&state_plus, observable)?;

            // Current value
            let state = self.evaluate(params)?;
            let expectation = compute_expectation_value(&state, observable)?;

            // Gradient
            gradients[param_idx] = (expectation_plus - expectation) / step_size;
        }

        Ok(gradients)
    }

    /// SPSA gradient estimation
    fn spsa_gradient(
        &self,
        observable: &PauliOperatorSum,
        params: &[f64],
        step_size: f64,
    ) -> Result<Vec<f64>> {
        // Generate random perturbation vector
        let mut perturbation = vec![0.0; self.num_parameters];
        for p in &mut perturbation {
            *p = if fastrand::bool() { 1.0 } else { -1.0 };
        }

        // Two evaluations with opposite perturbations
        let mut params_plus = params.to_vec();
        let mut params_minus = params.to_vec();

        for i in 0..self.num_parameters {
            params_plus[i] += step_size * perturbation[i];
            params_minus[i] -= step_size * perturbation[i];
        }

        let state_plus = self.evaluate(&params_plus)?;
        let state_minus = self.evaluate(&params_minus)?;

        let expectation_plus = compute_expectation_value(&state_plus, observable)?;
        let expectation_minus = compute_expectation_value(&state_minus, observable)?;

        // SPSA gradient estimate
        let diff = (expectation_plus - expectation_minus) / (2.0 * step_size);
        let gradients = perturbation.iter().map(|&p| diff / p).collect();

        Ok(gradients)
    }
}

/// VQE algorithm with automatic differentiation
pub struct VQEWithAutodiff {
    /// Parametric ansatz circuit
    pub ansatz: ParametricCircuit,
    /// Hamiltonian observable
    pub hamiltonian: PauliOperatorSum,
    /// Autodiff context
    pub context: AutoDiffContext,
    /// Optimization history
    pub history: Vec<VQEIteration>,
    /// Convergence criteria
    pub convergence: ConvergenceCriteria,
}

/// Single VQE iteration data
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct VQEIteration {
    /// Iteration number
    pub iteration: usize,
    /// Parameter values
    pub parameters: Vec<f64>,
    /// Energy expectation value
    pub energy: f64,
    /// Gradient norm
    pub gradient_norm: f64,
    /// Function evaluations so far
    pub func_evals: usize,
    /// Gradient evaluations so far
    pub grad_evals: usize,
}

/// Convergence criteria for VQE
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct ConvergenceCriteria {
    /// Maximum iterations
    pub max_iterations: usize,
    /// Energy tolerance
    pub energy_tolerance: f64,
    /// Gradient norm tolerance
    pub gradient_tolerance: f64,
    /// Maximum function evaluations
    pub max_func_evals: usize,
}

impl Default for ConvergenceCriteria {
    fn default() -> Self {
        Self {
            max_iterations: 1000,
            energy_tolerance: 1e-6,
            gradient_tolerance: 1e-6,
            max_func_evals: 10000,
        }
    }
}

impl VQEWithAutodiff {
    /// Create new VQE instance
    pub fn new(
        ansatz: ParametricCircuit,
        hamiltonian: PauliOperatorSum,
        initial_params: Vec<f64>,
        gradient_method: GradientMethod,
    ) -> Self {
        let context = AutoDiffContext::new(initial_params, gradient_method);

        Self {
            ansatz,
            hamiltonian,
            context,
            history: Vec::new(),
            convergence: ConvergenceCriteria::default(),
        }
    }

    /// Set convergence criteria
    pub fn with_convergence(mut self, convergence: ConvergenceCriteria) -> Self {
        self.convergence = convergence;
        self
    }

    /// Evaluate energy for current parameters
    pub fn evaluate_energy(&mut self) -> Result<f64> {
        let state = self.ansatz.evaluate(&self.context.parameters)?;
        let energy = compute_expectation_value(&state, &self.hamiltonian)?;
        self.context.func_evaluations += 1;
        Ok(energy)
    }

    /// Compute gradient for current parameters
    pub fn compute_gradient(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<f64>> {
        let gradients = self.ansatz.gradient_expectation(
            &self.hamiltonian,
            &self.context.parameters,
            self.context.method,
        )?;
        self.context.gradients = gradients.clone();
        self.context.grad_evaluations += 1;
        Ok(gradients)
    }

    /// Perform one VQE optimization step using gradient descent
    pub fn step(&mut self, learning_rate: f64) -> Result<VQEIteration> {
        let energy = self.evaluate_energy()?;
        let gradients = self.compute_gradient()?;

        // Gradient descent update
        for (i, &grad) in gradients.iter().enumerate() {
            self.context.parameters[i] -= learning_rate * grad;
        }

        let gradient_norm = gradients.iter().map(|g| g * g).sum::<f64>().sqrt();

        let iteration = VQEIteration {
            iteration: self.history.len(),
            parameters: self.context.parameters.clone(),
            energy,
            gradient_norm,
            func_evals: self.context.func_evaluations,
            grad_evals: self.context.grad_evaluations,
        };

        self.history.push(iteration.clone());
        Ok(iteration)
    }

    /// Run VQE optimization until convergence
    pub fn optimize(&mut self, learning_rate: f64) -> Result<VQEResult> {
        while !self.is_converged()? {
            let iteration = self.step(learning_rate)?;

            if iteration.iteration >= self.convergence.max_iterations {
                break;
            }

            if iteration.func_evals >= self.convergence.max_func_evals {
                break;
            }
        }

        let final_iteration = self.history.last().unwrap();

        Ok(VQEResult {
            optimal_parameters: final_iteration.parameters.clone(),
            optimal_energy: final_iteration.energy,
            iterations: self.history.len(),
            converged: self.is_converged()?,
            history: self.history.clone(),
        })
    }

    /// Check convergence
    fn is_converged(&self) -> Result<bool> {
        if self.history.len() < 2 {
            return Ok(false);
        }

        let current = &self.history[self.history.len() - 1];
        let previous = &self.history[self.history.len() - 2];

        let energy_converged =
            (current.energy - previous.energy).abs() < self.convergence.energy_tolerance;
        let gradient_converged = current.gradient_norm < self.convergence.gradient_tolerance;

        Ok(energy_converged && gradient_converged)
    }
}

/// VQE optimization result
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct VQEResult {
    /// Optimal parameters found
    pub optimal_parameters: Vec<f64>,
    /// Optimal energy value
    pub optimal_energy: f64,
    /// Number of iterations performed
    pub iterations: usize,
    /// Whether optimization converged
    pub converged: bool,
    /// Full optimization history
    pub history: Vec<VQEIteration>,
}

// Helper functions

/// Compute expectation value of observable for given state
fn compute_expectation_value(
    state: &Array1<Complex64>,
    observable: &PauliOperatorSum,
) -> Result<f64> {
    let mut expectation = 0.0;

    for term in &observable.terms {
        // Compute ⟨ψ|P|ψ⟩ for each Pauli string P
        let pauli_expectation = compute_pauli_expectation_from_state(state, term)?;
        expectation += term.coefficient.re * pauli_expectation.re;
    }

    Ok(expectation)
}

/// Compute expectation value of a single Pauli string
fn compute_pauli_expectation_from_state(
    state: &Array1<Complex64>,
    pauli_string: &PauliString,
) -> Result<Complex64> {
    let num_qubits = pauli_string.num_qubits;
    let dim = 1 << num_qubits;
    let mut result = Complex64::new(0.0, 0.0);

    for (i, &amplitude) in state.iter().enumerate() {
        if i >= dim {
            break;
        }

        // Apply Pauli string to basis state |i⟩
        let mut coeff = Complex64::new(1.0, 0.0);
        let mut target_state = i;

        for (qubit, &pauli_op) in pauli_string.operators.iter().enumerate() {
            let bit = (i >> qubit) & 1;

            use crate::pauli::PauliOperator;
            match pauli_op {
                PauliOperator::I => {} // Identity does nothing
                PauliOperator::X => {
                    // X flips the bit
                    target_state ^= 1 << qubit;
                }
                PauliOperator::Y => {
                    // Y flips the bit and adds phase
                    target_state ^= 1 << qubit;
                    coeff *= if bit == 0 {
                        Complex64::new(0.0, 1.0)
                    } else {
                        Complex64::new(0.0, -1.0)
                    };
                }
                PauliOperator::Z => {
                    // Z adds phase based on bit value
                    if bit == 1 {
                        coeff *= Complex64::new(-1.0, 0.0);
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        if target_state < dim {
            result += amplitude.conj() * coeff * state[target_state];
        }
    }

    Ok(result * pauli_string.coefficient)
}

/// Convenience functions for creating common ansätze
pub mod ansatze {
    use super::*;

    /// Create a hardware-efficient ansatz
    pub fn hardware_efficient(num_qubits: usize, num_layers: usize) -> ParametricCircuit {
        let mut circuit = ParametricCircuit::new(num_qubits);
        let mut param_idx = 0;

        for layer in 0..num_layers {
            // Single-qubit rotations
            for qubit in 0..num_qubits {
                let _ = circuit.ry(qubit, param_idx);
                param_idx += 1;
                let _ = circuit.rz(qubit, param_idx);
                param_idx += 1;
            }

            // Entangling layer (would need CNOT gates - simplified here)
            // In practice, would add parametric CNOT gates
        }

        circuit
    }

    /// Create a QAOA ansatz for MaxCut problem
    pub fn qaoa_maxcut(
        num_qubits: usize,
        num_layers: usize,
        edges: &[(usize, usize)],
    ) -> ParametricCircuit {
        let mut circuit = ParametricCircuit::new(num_qubits);
        let mut param_idx = 0;

        // Initial superposition
        for qubit in 0..num_qubits {
            let _ = circuit.ry(qubit, param_idx); // RY(π/2) for H gate equivalent
        }

        for _layer in 0..num_layers {
            // Problem Hamiltonian evolution (ZZ terms)
            for &(i, j) in edges {
                // Would implement ZZ rotation here
                // For now, approximate with RZ gates
                let _ = circuit.rz(i, param_idx);
                let _ = circuit.rz(j, param_idx);
                param_idx += 1;
            }

            // Mixer Hamiltonian evolution (X terms)
            for qubit in 0..num_qubits {
                let _ = circuit.rx(qubit, param_idx);
                param_idx += 1;
            }
        }

        circuit
    }
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn test_parametric_rx_matrix() {
        let rx_gate = ParametricRX {
            qubit: 0,
            param_idx: 0,
        };
        let params = vec![PI / 2.0];

        let matrix = rx_gate.matrix(&params).unwrap();

        // RX(π/2) should be approximately [[1/√2, -i/√2], [-i/√2, 1/√2]]
        let expected_val = 1.0 / 2.0_f64.sqrt();
        assert!((matrix[[0, 0]].re - expected_val).abs() < 1e-10);
        assert!((matrix[[0, 1]].im + expected_val).abs() < 1e-10);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_autodiff_context() {
        let params = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0];
        let mut context = AutoDiffContext::new(params.clone(), GradientMethod::ParameterShift);

        assert_eq!(context.parameters, params);
        assert_eq!(context.gradients.len(), 3);

        context.update_parameters(vec![4.0, 5.0, 6.0]);
        assert_eq!(context.parameters, vec![4.0, 5.0, 6.0]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_parametric_circuit_creation() {
        let mut circuit = ParametricCircuit::new(2);
        let _ = circuit.rx(0, 0);
        let _ = circuit.ry(1, 1);

        assert_eq!(circuit.gates.len(), 2);
        assert_eq!(circuit.num_parameters, 2);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_hardware_efficient_ansatz() {
        let ansatz = ansatze::hardware_efficient(3, 2);
        assert_eq!(ansatz.num_qubits, 3);
        assert!(ansatz.num_parameters > 0);
    }
}