nodejs/

host.rs

//! The JavaScript object heap and runtime, reached from fusevm through
//! registered builtins (`register_builtin`) and the strict numeric hook.
//!
//! node-js owns no VM and no JIT: the compiler lowers JS to `fusevm::Chunk`, and
//! every JS-specific operation the VM can't do natively is a builtin call that
//! lands here. Local variables live in `Rc<RefCell>` environments chained
//! parent-to-child, so a nested function/closure captures its enclosing scope by
//! reference.
//!
//! Value representation:
//!   - immediate: `Value::Float` (every JS number — one IEEE-754 f64 type),
//!     `Value::Bool` (true/false), `Value::Undef` (undefined);
//!   - heap `Value::Obj(u32)` handles: string, array, object, function,
//!     builtin-namespace, and the canonical `null` — the reference types.

use fusevm::{Chunk, NumOp, VMResult, Value, VM};
use indexmap::IndexMap;
use std::cell::RefCell;
use std::collections::HashMap;
use std::collections::HashSet;
use std::rc::Rc;
use std::sync::mpsc::{Receiver, Sender};
use std::time::{Duration, Instant};

/// A unit of I/O work handed from a background I/O thread to the main-thread
/// event loop. It is a boxed closure so `host.rs` stays agnostic of `net`/`http`:
/// the I/O thread captures only plain `Send` data (bytes, ids, `TcpStream`s) and
/// the closure runs the JS-touching dispatch on the main thread (where the
/// thread-local host lives). I/O threads NEVER touch the host directly.
pub type IoTask = Box<dyn FnOnce() -> Result<(), String> + Send>;

/// Builtin ids emitted by the compiler and registered on every VM. The compiler
/// (`compiler.rs`) and the handler table (`builtins.rs::install`) must agree on
/// these exactly.
pub mod ops {
    pub const GETLOCAL: u16 = 1; // [name] -> value (scope-chain read)
    pub const SETLOCAL: u16 = 2; // [name, value] -> value (assignment)
    pub const DECLARE: u16 = 3; // [name, value] -> value (let/const/var into current scope)
    pub const DELNAME: u16 = 4; // [name]
    pub const GETATTR: u16 = 5; // [recv, name] -> value (member .x)
    pub const SETATTR: u16 = 6; // [recv, name, value]
    pub const GETITEM: u16 = 7; // [recv, idx] -> value (computed [k])
    pub const SETITEM: u16 = 8; // [recv, idx, value]
    pub const DELITEM: u16 = 9; // [recv, idx] -> Bool (delete obj[k])
    pub const MKSTR: u16 = 10; // [parts...] -> str (concat)
    pub const MKARR: u16 = 11; // [items...] -> array
    pub const MKOBJ: u16 = 12; // [tag,k,v,...] -> object (tag 1 = ...spread of k)
    pub const CALL: u16 = 13; // [name, args...] -> resolve name & call
    pub const CALL_METHOD: u16 = 14; // [recv, name, args...]
    pub const CALL_VALUE: u16 = 15; // [callable, args...]
    pub const NEW: u16 = 16; // [ctor, args...] -> instance
    pub const TRUTHY: u16 = 17; // [v] -> Bool (JS truthiness)
    pub const TOSTR: u16 = 18; // [v] -> str via String(v)
    pub const MKFUNC: u16 = 19; // [func_id, defaults...] -> closure
    pub const GETITER: u16 = 20; // [iterable] -> iterator (left on stack)
    pub const FORITER: u16 = 21; // peek iterator -> pushes value + Bool(has_next)
    pub const FORIN_KEYS: u16 = 22; // [obj] -> array of enumerable keys
    pub const CONTAINS: u16 = 23; // [key, obj] -> Bool (`in`)
    pub const SIG_RETURN: u16 = 24; // [v] -> return v from the function
    pub const BINOP: u16 = 25; // [tag, a, b] -> bitwise/shift result (JS int32 semantics)
    pub const UNARY: u16 = 26; // [tag, v] -> unary +/~ result
    pub const STRICT_EQ: u16 = 27; // [a, b] -> Bool (===)
    pub const LOOSE_EQ: u16 = 28; // [a, b] -> Bool (==)
    pub const TYPEOF: u16 = 29; // [v] -> str
    pub const LOAD_NULL: u16 = 30; // [] -> the canonical null
    pub const THROW: u16 = 31; // [v] -> throw
    pub const TRY: u16 = 32; // [try_id] -> run a try/catch/finally block
    pub const NULLISH: u16 = 33; // [v] -> Bool (v is null or undefined)
    pub const UNPACK: u16 = 34; // [iterable, count, star] -> pushes count values
    pub const BUILD_ARGS: u16 = 35; // [tag,val,...] -> flat array (tag 1 = ...spread)
    pub const THIS: u16 = 36; // [] -> current `this`
    pub const INSTANCEOF: u16 = 37; // [a, b] -> Bool
    pub const DELPROP_NAME: u16 = 38; // [recv, name] -> Bool (delete obj.name)
    pub const APPLY: u16 = 39; // [callable, argsArray] -> call with spread args
    pub const APPLY_METHOD: u16 = 40; // [recv, name, argsArray] -> method call with spread
    pub const OBJ_REST: u16 = 41; // [obj, excludedKeys] -> object of remaining keys
    pub const DIV: u16 = 42; // [a, b] -> IEEE `a / b` (JS: x/0 = ±Infinity, 0/0 = NaN)
    pub const MKCLASS: u16 = 43; // [parent_or_undef, ctor_fn] -> class constructor value
    pub const DEF_MEMBER: u16 = 44; // [class, name, kind, is_static, fn] -> define method/get/set
    pub const SUPER_CALL: u16 = 45; // [args...] -> invoke parent ctor on `this`, then init fields
    pub const SUPER_GET: u16 = 46; // [name] -> resolve `super.name` (method up the parent chain)
    pub const YIELD: u16 = 47; // [v] -> suspend the running generator, yield v
    pub const PROPKEY: u16 = 48; // [v] -> property-key string (Symbol -> internal key, else String())
    pub const NEW_TARGET: u16 = 49; // [] -> the current frame's new.target (undefined if not `new`)
    pub const DEF_FIELD: u16 = 50; // [class, name, thunk] -> register an instance field initializer
    pub const AWAIT: u16 = 51; // [v] -> await v (suspend the async coroutine until v settles)
    pub const DEF_ACCESSOR: u16 = 52; // [obj, name, kind, fn] -> install a getter/setter on obj
    pub const DBG_LINE: u16 = 53; // [line] -> DAP statement marker (debug only)
    pub const MKBIGINT: u16 = 54; // [decimal_str] -> heap BigInt value
    pub const MKREGEX: u16 = 55; // [pattern, flags] -> heap RegExp value
    pub const TAG_TMPL: u16 = 56; // [tag, cooked..., raw..., n, values...] -> tagged-template call
    pub const GET_ASYNC_ITER: u16 = 57; // [iterable] -> async iterator (for-await-of)
    pub const ASYNC_STEP: u16 = 58; // [asyncIterator] -> Promise of {value, done}
    pub const NUM_STEP: u16 = 59; // [tag(±1), old] -> pushes ToNumeric(old), returns old±1 (type-preserving; BigInt-aware ++/--)
    pub const ITER_CLOSE: u16 = 60; // [iterator] -> close it (for-of break: run a generator's finally / call .return())
    pub const TYPEOF_NAME: u16 = 61; // [name] -> str; `typeof <ident>` reads the name WITHOUT throwing (unbound -> "undefined")
    pub const SIG_BREAK: u16 = 62; // [label|""] -> raise a Break signal and halt the chunk (break out of a `try`)
    pub const SIG_CONTINUE: u16 = 63; // [label|""] -> raise a Continue signal and halt the chunk
    pub const SIG_UNWIND: u16 = 64; // [tag] -> 0 none / 1 break here / 2 continue here; halts the chunk to propagate
    pub const PUSH_SCOPE: u16 = 65; // [] -> enter a fresh block scope (`let`/`const` live here)
    pub const POP_SCOPE: u16 = 66; // [] -> leave the innermost block scope
    pub const COPY_SCOPE: u16 = 67; // [] -> replace the innermost block scope with a COPY (per-iteration `let`)
    pub const DECLARE_VAR: u16 = 68; // [name, value] -> declare at FUNCTION scope, ignoring block scopes (`var`)
    pub const NAMED_EVAL: u16 = 69; // [key, kind, fn] -> fn; SetFunctionName for a COMPUTED key (kind picks the `get `/`set ` prefix)
    pub const POW: u16 = 70; // [a, b] -> JS `a ** b` (NOT native `Op::Pow`: IEEE pow answers 1 for `(-1) ** Infinity` and `1 ** NaN`)
    pub const DECLARE_CONST: u16 = 71; // [name, value] -> value; like DECLARE but the binding is IMMUTABLE (`const`)
    pub const MARK_HOLE: u16 = 72; // [arr, index] -> arr; record an ELIDED array-literal element
    pub const SETLOCAL_STRICT: u16 = 73; // [name, value] -> value; like SETLOCAL but an UNRESOLVABLE name throws ReferenceError instead of creating a global (strict-mode PutValue)
    pub const HOIST_VAR: u16 = 74; // [name] -> create the `var` binding as undefined IF ABSENT (hoisting)
}

/// Per-call-site callee SOURCE TEXT, for the `TypeError` a failed call raises.
///
/// V8 reports the callee the way the source wrote it — `z.f is not a function`,
/// not `f is not a function` — by re-printing the AST of the call it was
/// evaluating. The text is therefore a static property of the SITE, so the
/// compiler records it once per call op and nothing is carried at run time: the
/// table is consulted only on the error path.
///
/// Keyed by the chunk's `op_hash` (which `ChunkBuilder::build` computes anyway)
/// paired with the op index. `op_hash` covers the op vector but not the name
/// pool, so two chunks that compile to the same ops with different names share a
/// key; the consequence is confined to which receiver text an error message
/// names, never to what a program does.
mod call_sites {
    use std::cell::RefCell;

    thread_local! {
        pub(super) static SITES: RefCell<rustc_hash::FxHashMap<(u64, usize), String>> =
            RefCell::new(rustc_hash::FxHashMap::default());
    }

    /// Record every call site of a freshly built chunk.
    pub fn register(op_hash: u64, sites: Vec<(usize, String)>) {
        if sites.is_empty() {
            return;
        }
        SITES.with(|m| {
            let mut m = m.borrow_mut();
            for (ip, text) in sites {
                m.insert((op_hash, ip), text);
            }
        });
    }

    /// The callee text recorded for the op at `ip` of the chunk `op_hash`.
    pub fn text(op_hash: u64, ip: usize) -> Option<String> {
        SITES.with(|m| m.borrow().get(&(op_hash, ip)).cloned())
    }

    pub fn clear() {
        SITES.with(|m| m.borrow_mut().clear());
    }
}

pub use call_sites::{clear as clear_call_sites, register as register_call_sites};

/// How many `for…of` / `yield*` iterators are parked on the VM stack at each
/// `yield` op, recorded by the compiler the same way callee text is.
///
/// A `.return()`/`.throw()` injected at a suspension point halts the generator's
/// chunk outright, which jumps past the loop exits that would have closed those
/// iterators — so the halt path has to close them itself, and this is how it
/// knows how many are there and that they are the top of the stack.
mod yield_sites {
    use std::cell::RefCell;

    thread_local! {
        pub(super) static DEPTHS: RefCell<rustc_hash::FxHashMap<(u64, usize), usize>> =
            RefCell::new(rustc_hash::FxHashMap::default());
    }

    pub fn register(op_hash: u64, sites: Vec<(usize, usize)>) {
        if sites.is_empty() {
            return;
        }
        DEPTHS.with(|m| {
            let mut m = m.borrow_mut();
            for (ip, depth) in sites {
                m.insert((op_hash, ip), depth);
            }
        });
    }

    pub fn depth(op_hash: u64, ip: usize) -> usize {
        DEPTHS.with(|m| m.borrow().get(&(op_hash, ip)).copied().unwrap_or(0))
    }

    pub fn clear() {
        DEPTHS.with(|m| m.borrow_mut().clear());
    }
}

pub use yield_sites::{clear as clear_yield_sites, register as register_yield_sites};

/// Every call site and yield site registered so far, as the cache stores them:
/// `(op_hash, ip)` keys with their recorded value.
///
/// The tables are built by the COMPILER (`finish_chunk`), so a run that loads a
/// program from the bytecode cache never fills them — and everything that reads
/// them silently degrades: a generator's parked `for…of`/`yield*` iterators are
/// not closed on an injected `.return()`, so their `finally` never runs, and a
/// `TypeError` loses the callee's source text. Storing them alongside the
/// program is what makes a cache hit behave like a compile.
pub type SiteTables = (Vec<((u64, usize), String)>, Vec<((u64, usize), usize)>);

/// Snapshot both registries.
pub fn site_tables() -> SiteTables {
    let calls = call_sites::SITES.with(|m| {
        m.borrow()
            .iter()
            .map(|(k, v)| (*k, v.clone()))
            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
    });
    let yields =
        yield_sites::DEPTHS.with(|m| m.borrow().iter().map(|(k, v)| (*k, *v)).collect::<Vec<_>>());
    (calls, yields)
}

/// Put a snapshot back — what a cache hit does in place of compiling.
pub fn restore_site_tables(t: &SiteTables) {
    call_sites::SITES.with(|m| {
        let mut m = m.borrow_mut();
        for (k, v) in &t.0 {
            m.insert(*k, v.clone());
        }
    });
    yield_sites::DEPTHS.with(|m| {
        let mut m = m.borrow_mut();
        for (k, v) in &t.1 {
            m.insert(*k, *v);
        }
    });
}

/// The number of loop iterators parked on the stack at the op currently
/// executing, for the abrupt-completion close in `b_yield`.
pub fn parked_iters(vm: &fusevm::VM) -> usize {
    yield_sites::depth(vm.chunk.op_hash, vm.ip.saturating_sub(1))
}

/// Rewrite a `<subject> is not a function` / `is not a constructor` message with
/// the SOURCE TEXT of the callee at the currently executing op, as V8 does.
///
/// `subject` is what the raising code named — the method name, or the callee's
/// rendered value. The message's own subject must END WITH it, which is the
/// guard that keeps an unrelated error raised deeper inside a native method from
/// being relabelled with this call's text. (A native dispatcher may prefix its
/// own receiver word, e.g. `map.get is not a function`, so the whole subject is
/// replaced rather than trimmed by length.)
///
/// Returns the message unchanged when no site was recorded, so a shape the
/// printer declines to print keeps the old wording rather than an invented one.
pub fn name_call_site(vm: &fusevm::VM, subject: &str, msg: String) -> String {
    for tail in [" is not a function", " is not a constructor"] {
        let Some(head) = msg.strip_suffix(tail) else {
            continue;
        };
        // The prefix is the error class (`TypeError: `); the rest is the subject.
        let (prefix, found) = match head.rfind(": ") {
            Some(i) => (&head[..i + 2], &head[i + 2..]),
            None => ("", head),
        };
        if !found.ends_with(subject) {
            return msg;
        }
        // `vm.ip` has already advanced past the op being executed.
        let Some(text) = call_sites::text(vm.chunk.op_hash, vm.ip.saturating_sub(1)) else {
            return msg;
        };
        return format!("{prefix}{text}{tail}");
    }
    msg
}

/// `SIG_UNWIND` scope tags: what the emitting site is nested in.
pub mod unwind {
    /// No enclosing loop in this chunk — any pending signal propagates outward.
    pub const NO_LOOP: &str = "";
    /// An enclosing UNLABELED loop in this chunk.
    pub const PLAIN_LOOP: &str = "\u{0}";
    /// `SIG_UNWIND` result codes.
    pub const NONE: i64 = 0;
    pub const BREAK: i64 = 1;
    pub const CONTINUE: i64 = 2;
}

/// `DEF_MEMBER` member-kind tags.
pub mod member {
    pub const METHOD: i64 = 0;
    pub const GET: i64 = 1;
    pub const SET: i64 = 2;
    /// A static FIELD (`static x = 1`), which is a data property of the
    /// constructor rather than a method. Only distinguished from `METHOD` for a
    /// PRIVATE name, where the declaration must install the private element
    /// without tripping the brand check an ordinary write to `#x` gets — and
    /// where node's brand-check message words a field differently from a method.
    pub const STATIC_FIELD: i64 = 3;
}

/// Bitwise/shift op tags carried by `ops::BINOP` (JS ToInt32/ToUint32 rules).
pub mod binop {
    pub const BITAND: i64 = 0;
    pub const BITOR: i64 = 1;
    pub const BITXOR: i64 = 2;
    pub const SHL: i64 = 3;
    pub const SHR: i64 = 4;
    pub const USHR: i64 = 5;
}

/// Unary op tags carried by `ops::UNARY`.
pub mod unop {
    pub const POS: i64 = 0; // unary +
    pub const BITNOT: i64 = 1; // ~
}

// ── heap objects ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

/// A compiled function template: parameter shape + body chunk. Shared by every
/// closure created from the same function/arrow.
#[derive(Clone, serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize)]
pub struct FuncDef {
    pub name: String,
    /// Parameter binding templates (destructuring lowered by the compiler into
    /// the body prologue; here we only track the simple arg slots).
    pub params: Vec<ParamSlot>,
    pub chunk: Chunk,
    pub is_arrow: bool,
    /// True for a `function*`/`*method`/generator arrow: calling it builds a
    /// suspended generator instead of running the body.
    pub is_generator: bool,
    /// True for an `async` function/method/arrow: calling it drives a coroutine
    /// and returns a Promise; `await` inside suspends via the same yielder.
    pub is_async: bool,
    /// True for a MethodDefinition (`{ m(){} }`, a class method/accessor). A
    /// non-generator method is not a constructor, so it owns no `prototype`.
    #[serde(default)]
    pub is_method: bool,
    /// True for a NAMED function *expression* (`const f = function fact(n) {…}`):
    /// the closure gets an extra environment binding its own name to itself, so
    /// the body can recurse through that name even when the outer binding differs.
    #[serde(default)]
    pub self_name: bool,
}

/// One parameter slot. `name` is the simple bound name; a destructuring pattern
/// is lowered to a synthetic `.arg{i}` name plus body prologue code.
#[derive(Clone, serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize)]
pub struct ParamSlot {
    pub name: String,
    /// True for the `...rest` collector.
    pub rest: bool,
    /// True if this slot has a default expression (applied in the body prologue).
    pub has_default: bool,
}

/// A compiled `try`/`catch`/`finally` block. Bodies are bare chunks run in the
/// current scope.
#[derive(Clone, serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize)]
pub struct TryDef {
    pub block: Chunk,
    /// `(catch_param_name, catch_body)`.
    pub handler: Option<(Option<String>, Chunk)>,
    pub finalizer: Option<Chunk>,
}

/// A live closure value.
#[derive(Clone)]
pub struct FuncVal {
    pub def_id: usize,
    /// Captured lexical environment (enclosing scope chain), for free vars.
    pub env: Option<Env>,
    /// `this` captured at definition time (arrow functions).
    pub this: Option<Value>,
    pub is_arrow: bool,
    /// The owning class name for a method (drives `super` resolution). `None` for
    /// plain functions/arrows.
    pub home_class: Option<String>,
}

/// A heap object.
#[derive(Clone)]
pub enum JsObj {
    Str(String),
    Array(Vec<Value>),
    Object(IndexMap<String, Value>),
    Func(FuncVal),
    /// A first-class reference to a builtin function or namespace
    /// (`console.log`, `Math`, `parseInt`).
    Builtin(String),
    /// A bound method value (`obj.method` captured then called): dispatches
    /// through `call_method(recv, name, args)` when invoked.
    BoundMethod {
        recv: Value,
        name: String,
    },
    /// The single canonical `null`.
    Null,
    /// A live iterator over a sequence, with a cursor.
    Iter {
        items: Vec<Value>,
        idx: usize,
    },
    /// A bound function (`fn.bind(thisArg, ...preargs)`).
    BoundFunc {
        target: Value,
        this: Value,
        args: Vec<Value>,
    },
    /// A class constructor value: the runtime object produced by a `class`.
    Class(ClassVal),
    /// A `Symbol` — a unique property key. `registered` marks a `Symbol.for`
    /// key (shared) vs a fresh `Symbol()`.
    Symbol {
        desc: Option<String>,
        id: u64,
    },
    /// A `Map` (or `WeakMap` when `weak`): insertion-ordered key→value entries.
    Map {
        entries: IndexMap<MapKey, (Value, Value)>,
        weak: bool,
    },
    /// A `Set` (or `WeakSet` when `weak`): insertion-ordered unique values.
    Set {
        entries: IndexMap<MapKey, Value>,
        weak: bool,
    },
    /// A live generator, backed by a stackful `corosensei` coroutine in
    /// `JsHost.generators`.
    Generator {
        id: u32,
    },
    /// A Promise, backed by a `PromiseCell` in `JsHost.promises`.
    Promise {
        id: u32,
    },
    /// An arbitrary-precision `BigInt` (`typeof === "bigint"`).
    BigInt(num_bigint::BigInt),
    /// A compiled regular expression (`/pat/flags` or `new RegExp(...)`).
    RegExp(Box<RegExpObj>),
    /// A `Proxy`: every essential internal method is diverted to `handler`'s
    /// traps (see `crate::proxy`). `revoked` is set by the thunk
    /// `Proxy.revocable` hands back, after which every operation throws.
    Proxy {
        target: Value,
        handler: Value,
        revoked: bool,
    },
}

/// Which variant a heap object is, carrying none of its contents.
///
/// Property access has to pick a branch by variant, but the code inside a branch
/// re-enters the host (`bound_method`, `lookup_chain`, `invoke`), so it cannot
/// hold a `&JsObj` borrow across the match. The way out used to be
/// `h.get(v).cloned()` — which deep-copies the entire backing store (a whole
/// `Vec<Value>`, `IndexMap`, or `String`) just to read its tag. That made one
/// property read O(len) and any loop over a collection O(n^2). This type is the
/// same discriminant with nothing attached, so the probe is O(1) and each branch
/// re-borrows for only the one field it actually needs.
/// The well-known symbols node-js actually honors. `Symbol.<name>` is the
/// interned symbol `@@Symbol.<name>`, and using it as a property key stores
/// under the sentinel string `@@<name>` (`property_key`) so the internal
/// lookups (`@@iterator`, `@@toPrimitive`, …) can find it without a symbol
/// table walk. Symbols V8 defines but node-js does not act on are deliberately
/// absent: a symbol that reads back while the operator it names ignores it would
/// be a silent fake. `hasInstance` is listed because `instance_of` consults it.
pub const WELL_KNOWN_SYMBOLS: &[&str] = &[
    "iterator",
    "asyncIterator",
    "toPrimitive",
    "toStringTag",
    "hasInstance",
];

/// Whether the internal key `k` came from a SYMBOL used as a property key
/// (`@@sym:<id>`, or a well-known `@@iterator`), as opposed to one of node-js's
/// hidden slots (`@@native`, `@@bytes`, `@@ms`, `@@kind`, …). Only the former
/// is an observable JavaScript property.
pub fn is_symbol_key(k: &str) -> bool {
    match k.strip_prefix("@@") {
        Some(rest) => rest
            .strip_prefix("sym:")
            .map(|i| i.parse::<u64>().is_ok())
            .unwrap_or_else(|| WELL_KNOWN_SYMBOLS.contains(&rest)),
        None => false,
    }
}

#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Debug)]
pub enum ObjKind {
    Str,
    Array,
    Object,
    Func,
    Builtin,
    BoundMethod,
    Null,
    Iter,
    BoundFunc,
    Class,
    Symbol,
    Map,
    Set,
    Generator,
    Promise,
    BigInt,
    RegExp,
    Proxy,
}

impl JsObj {
    /// This object's variant, without touching its contents.
    pub fn kind(&self) -> ObjKind {
        match self {
            JsObj::Str(_) => ObjKind::Str,
            JsObj::Array(_) => ObjKind::Array,
            JsObj::Object(_) => ObjKind::Object,
            JsObj::Func(_) => ObjKind::Func,
            JsObj::Builtin(_) => ObjKind::Builtin,
            JsObj::BoundMethod { .. } => ObjKind::BoundMethod,
            JsObj::Null => ObjKind::Null,
            JsObj::Iter { .. } => ObjKind::Iter,
            JsObj::BoundFunc { .. } => ObjKind::BoundFunc,
            JsObj::Class(_) => ObjKind::Class,
            JsObj::Symbol { .. } => ObjKind::Symbol,
            JsObj::Map { .. } => ObjKind::Map,
            JsObj::Set { .. } => ObjKind::Set,
            JsObj::Generator { .. } => ObjKind::Generator,
            JsObj::Promise { .. } => ObjKind::Promise,
            JsObj::BigInt(_) => ObjKind::BigInt,
            JsObj::RegExp(_) => ObjKind::RegExp,
            JsObj::Proxy { .. } => ObjKind::Proxy,
        }
    }
}

/// A `RegExp` object: the compiled `fancy_regex::Regex` plus the JS-visible
/// source, flag booleans, and the mutable `lastIndex` cursor (used by `g`/`y`
/// matching). fancy-regex adds lookaround + backreferences on top of the Rust
/// `regex` fast path, so the JS grammar node-js can accept is a near-superset.
#[derive(Clone)]
pub struct RegExpObj {
    /// The translated regex. Construction of a pattern fancy-regex still cannot
    /// express (documented in BUGS.md) throws at `RegExp` build time, so a live
    /// `RegExpObj` always holds a compiled engine.
    ///
    /// Shared (`Rc`) rather than owned, because a regex LITERAL builds a fresh
    /// `RegExpObj` on every evaluation — it has to, since `lastIndex` is
    /// per-object mutable state — while the compiled engine behind it is
    /// immutable and identical every time. See `regexp::compiled`.
    pub re: std::rc::Rc<fancy_regex::Regex>,
    pub source: String,
    pub flags: String,
    pub global: bool,
    pub ignore_case: bool,
    pub multiline: bool,
    pub dot_all: bool,
    pub sticky: bool,
    pub unicode: bool,
    /// `lastIndex`, in UTF-16 code units; advanced by `exec`/`test` under the
    /// `g`/`y` flags. The newtype keeps it from being confused with the regex
    /// engine's byte offsets, which are the same shape and differ off the BMP.
    pub last_index: crate::utf16::U16Index,
}

/// A Promise's settled state and pending reactions.
pub struct PromiseCell {
    pub state: PromiseState,
    pub value: Value,
    /// Reactions registered while still pending; drained (as microtasks) on
    /// settle.
    pub reactions: Vec<PromiseReaction>,
    /// True once a rejection has been observed by a handler (`.then`/`.catch`),
    /// so the loop doesn't report it as unhandled.
    pub handled: bool,
}

/// A pending Promise reaction: a user `.then` (JS handlers + a result promise) or
/// a native continuation (Promise chaining / async `await` resumption).
pub enum PromiseReaction {
    Js {
        on_ful: Value,
        on_rej: Value,
        result: Value,
    },
    Native(Box<dyn FnOnce(PromiseState, Value) -> Result<(), String>>),
}

#[derive(Default, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub enum PromiseState {
    #[default]
    Pending,
    Fulfilled,
    Rejected,
}

/// A live class constructor. The prototype object (holding instance methods) and
/// the static-side own properties live on the heap; `parent` is the superclass
/// constructor value (`None` for a base class).
#[derive(Clone)]
pub struct ClassVal {
    pub name: String,
    /// The constructor function value (a `JsObj::Func`), or `None` for a class
    /// with only a synthesized default constructor.
    pub ctor: Option<Value>,
    pub parent: Option<Value>,
    /// `C.prototype` — the object instances delegate to.
    pub proto: Value,
    /// Static own properties (static methods/fields), plus `name`/`prototype`.
    pub statics: IndexMap<String, Value>,
    /// Instance field initializers: `(name, thunk_fn, name_anon_init)`, run
    /// per-instance after `super()` (or at construction start for a base class).
    /// `name_anon_init` records the SYNTACTIC fact that the initializer was an
    /// anonymous function definition, so 15.7.10 NamedEvaluation applies to its
    /// result — it cannot be re-derived at run time (a field initialised from an
    /// already-anonymous function held elsewhere must not be renamed).
    pub fields: Vec<(String, Value, bool)>,
}

/// The result of resolving `super.name`: a getter to invoke (accessor property)
/// or a directly-usable value (method / data property).
pub enum SuperRef {
    Getter(Value),
    Data(Value),
}

/// A `Map`/`Set` key under SameValueZero: `NaN` collapses to one key, `-0` and
/// `+0` are the same key, primitives compare by value, objects by heap identity.
#[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
pub enum MapKey {
    Undef,
    Null,
    Bool(bool),
    /// f64 bit pattern with `NaN` canonicalized and `-0` normalized to `+0`.
    Num(u64),
    /// A `BigInt` key, by its decimal string (SameValueZero: `1n` is one key).
    Big(String),
    Str(String),
    /// Heap identity (objects, arrays, functions, symbols).
    Ref(u32),
}

// ── environments ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

/// The map behind a scope. Hashing these with `FxHash` instead of the default
/// was measured SLOWER, not faster — fib went 652ms to 1086ms and a 5M-iteration
/// counting loop 1894ms to 2381ms on the same machine — so the default stands.
pub type VarMap = IndexMap<String, Value>;

/// A local-variable environment, shared (by `Rc`) between a frame and any nested
/// function that captures it.
pub struct EnvData {
    pub vars: VarMap,
    /// The names in `vars` that were declared `const`, so an assignment to one
    /// throws (16.1.3 / 8.5.2 — an immutable binding rejects SetMutableBinding).
    ///
    /// A separate set rather than a flag inside `VarMap`'s value, because
    /// `set_name` is a hot path — the common case is an env with NO consts,
    /// where `is_empty()` settles it without hashing the name a second time.
    pub consts: rustc_hash::FxHashSet<String>,
    pub parent: Option<Env>,
}
pub type Env = Rc<RefCell<EnvData>>;

/// An accessor property: `(getter, setter)`, either optional.
pub type Accessor = (Option<Value>, Option<Value>);

/// Prefix of the hidden property-map entry that reserves an accessor's slot in
/// own-key insertion order (see `set_accessor`).
pub const ORD_MARKER: &str = "@@ord:";

/// The three ECMAScript own-property attributes. `PropAttrs::default()` is the
/// all-true shape a plain `o.k = v` assignment produces, which is why only
/// deviations need storing.
#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub struct PropAttrs {
    pub writable: bool,
    pub enumerable: bool,
    pub configurable: bool,
}

impl Default for PropAttrs {
    fn default() -> Self {
        PropAttrs {
            writable: true,
            enumerable: true,
            configurable: true,
        }
    }
}

impl PropAttrs {
    /// The attribute shape V8 gives an internal-but-inspectable slot such as
    /// `Error.prototype.message`, `err.stack` or a `Buffer`'s view metadata:
    /// readable and replaceable, but never enumerated.
    pub const HIDDEN: PropAttrs = PropAttrs {
        writable: true,
        enumerable: false,
        configurable: true,
    };
}

fn new_env(parent: Option<Env>) -> Env {
    Rc::new(RefCell::new(EnvData {
        vars: VarMap::default(),
        consts: rustc_hash::FxHashSet::default(),
        parent,
    }))
}

/// A fresh empty scope chained under `parent`.
pub fn child_env(parent: Env) -> Env {
    new_env(Some(parent))
}

/// One function activation.
pub struct Frame {
    pub env: Env,
    /// The env this activation started in — the FUNCTION scope. `var` and hoisted
    /// function declarations bind here no matter how many block scopes are open.
    pub base_env: Env,
    pub this_obj: Option<Value>,
    /// `new.target` for this activation (the constructor when invoked via `new`).
    pub new_target: Option<Value>,
    /// The class value owning the running method (drives `super`); `None` outside
    /// a class method/constructor.
    pub home_class: Option<Value>,
    /// Source line the frame is currently executing (updated by the DAP line hook
    /// under `--dap`; stays 0 on ordinary runs).
    pub line: u32,
    /// The function name that owns this frame, for the DAP `stackTrace`; `None`
    /// for the module frame and anonymous activations.
    pub owner: Option<String>,
    /// True ONLY for the program's module frame. A generator/async body runs on a
    /// coroutine whose swapped-in context holds just ITS OWN frame, so the frame
    /// COUNT cannot tell "module scope" from "coroutine body scope" — without this
    /// flag every top-level `let`/`var` in such a body declared a GLOBAL, shared
    /// across concurrent activations of the same function.
    pub is_module: bool,
}

/// A non-local control signal. `Break`/`Continue` carry the optional loop label
/// and are only raised when the target loop lives in an ENCLOSING chunk (a
/// `break` inside a `try` block, which the host runs as its own chunk); a
/// same-chunk `break` is a plain compiler-resolved jump.
#[derive(Clone)]
pub enum Signal {
    Return(Value),
    Break(Option<String>),
    Continue(Option<String>),
}

/// The JavaScript runtime.
pub struct JsHost {
    heap: Vec<JsObj>,
    /// Function templates, indexed by def id.
    pub funcs: Vec<FuncDef>,
    /// try/catch/finally block templates, indexed by try id.
    pub tries: Vec<TryDef>,
    /// Module-level (global) names.
    globals: VarMap,
    /// Top-level `const` names (a module frame declares into `globals`), so an
    /// assignment to one throws the same way a block-scoped `const` does.
    global_consts: rustc_hash::FxHashSet<String>,
    /// The frame stack (bottom = module).
    frames: Vec<Frame>,
    /// The program's top-level scope — the scope runtime-compiled source runs in
    /// (`new Function`, indirect `eval`, `vm.runInThisContext`; see
    /// `run_chunk_in_global_scope`), as opposed to whatever function frame
    /// happens to be executing when that source is compiled.
    ///
    /// Held as its own field rather than read off `frames[0]` because a coroutine
    /// body runs with `frames` SWAPPED for its own one-frame context
    /// (`install_gen_ctx`), so the bottom frame is not the top-level frame there.
    ///
    /// Note this is node-js's ONE top-level scope. Node distinguishes the global
    /// scope from a CommonJS module's scope (a module body is a wrapper
    /// function), so in Node a file's top-level `var` is invisible to dynamic
    /// code; here the entry file is evaluated with Script semantics, so it stays
    /// visible. That is the same entry-file-is-a-Script divergence `BUGS.md`
    /// records for top-level `return`, not a separate one — and `node -e`, which
    /// really is a Script, matches Node exactly.
    global_env: Env,
    pub error: Option<String>,
    /// The in-flight thrown value, if any (JS `throw`).
    pub exc: Option<Value>,
    pub signal: Option<Signal>,
    /// Promises that settled REJECTED this tick. Drained at each microtask
    /// checkpoint: any still without a handler is an unhandled rejection.
    pub pending_rejections: Vec<u32>,
    /// `process.on(event, fn)` listeners, by event name.
    pub process_listeners: IndexMap<String, Vec<ProcListener>>,
    /// The canonical `null` handle (allocated once).
    null_val: Value,
    /// `[[Prototype]]` link per heap object, by heap index. Absent = default
    /// (`Object.prototype` for objects, `null` for the root).
    protos: HashMap<u32, Value>,
    /// Heap objects whose `[[Prototype]]` is *explicitly* null — via
    /// `Object.create(null)` or `Object.setPrototypeOf(o, null)`. Distinct from a
    /// bare `{}` (absent from `protos` but conceptually `Object.prototype`), which
    /// is why `Object.create(null) instanceof Object` can read `false`.
    null_proto_objs: HashSet<u32>,
    /// Own properties of function objects (functions are objects in JS): a live
    /// closure's `name`/`prototype`/static-ish members. Keyed by heap index.
    fn_props: HashMap<u32, IndexMap<String, Value>>,
    /// Accessor (getter/setter) properties per owning object, by heap index then
    /// key: `(get, set)`. Class `get x()`/`set x()` install here on the prototype.
    accessors: HashMap<u32, IndexMap<String, Accessor>>,
    /// Own-property attributes that deviate from the plain-assignment default
    /// (`{writable, enumerable, configurable}` all true), by heap index then key.
    /// Only non-default entries are stored, so an ordinary object costs nothing;
    /// `prop_attrs` returns the default for any key absent here. This is what
    /// makes `Object.defineProperty(o, k, {enumerable: false})` invisible to
    /// `Object.keys`/`for-in`/`JSON.stringify` while `getOwnPropertyNames` still
    /// reports it, and what hides `Error`'s `message`/`stack` the way V8 does.
    prop_attrs: HashMap<u32, IndexMap<String, PropAttrs>>,
    /// Heap objects sealed against new properties by `Object.preventExtensions`,
    /// `Object.seal` or `Object.freeze`.
    non_extensible: HashSet<u32>,
    /// Private names (`#m`) declared as a METHOD or accessor rather than as a
    /// field, for the brand-check error text: node distinguishes `Receiver must
    /// be an instance of class C` (a private method or accessor) from `Cannot
    /// read private member #x …` (a private field). Which class is answered by
    /// the running method's home class, not by this set, so two classes
    /// declaring the same private method name stay exact.
    private_methods: HashSet<String>,
    /// The ELIDED element positions of each array, by heap index. Absent (the
    /// overwhelmingly common case) means the array is dense.
    ///
    /// A hole is deliberately NOT a `Value` variant. A sentinel value would have
    /// to be mapped back to `undefined` at every element read in the runtime, and
    /// a single missed read would leak an un-nameable value into user code — a
    /// worse failure than storing `undefined` and losing the distinction. Keeping
    /// the marker OUTSIDE the value domain makes that leak structurally
    /// impossible: the element vector still holds a perfectly ordinary
    /// `Value::Undef` at a hole, so any code path that has not been taught about
    /// holes degrades to exactly the pre-existing behaviour (a visible
    /// `undefined`) instead of producing something unrepresentable.
    ///
    /// Sized like the array it describes in the worst case (`new Array(n)` marks
    /// every index), which is the same order as the `Vec<Value>` already paid for
    /// that array — so it cannot turn a working allocation into an OOM.
    array_holes: HashMap<u32, rustc_hash::FxHashSet<usize>>,
    /// User-assigned static properties on a builtin namespace/constructor, keyed
    /// by namespace name then property (`Error` → `prepareStackTrace`,
    /// `stackTraceLimit`). Each bare `Error` reference allocates a fresh
    /// `Builtin` handle, so these cannot live in `fn_props` (which is per-heap-
    /// index); this stable side table lets `Error.prepareStackTrace = fn` persist.
    builtin_statics: HashMap<String, IndexMap<String, Value>>,
    /// The shared well-known `Object.prototype` object (chain root for objects).
    object_proto: Value,
    /// Class name of each class `prototype` object, by heap index — lets an
    /// instance recover its constructor name (for `util.inspect` prefix and
    /// `obj.constructor.name`).
    proto_class: HashMap<u32, Value>,
    /// Class constructor values by name, so a running method's `home_class` name
    /// resolves to its class value (for `super`).
    class_registry: HashMap<String, Value>,
    /// Well-known prototype objects for the builtin error constructors, by name.
    error_protos: HashMap<String, Value>,
    /// Real prototype *objects* for the builtin exotics whose instances need a
    /// genuine `[[Prototype]]` link (`Buffer`, `Uint8Array`). Most builtin
    /// prototypes are `Builtin("<Ctor>.prototype")` thunk namespaces, which
    /// cannot appear on a prototype chain and report `typeof "function"`.
    native_protos: HashMap<String, Value>,
    /// `Symbol.for` registry: description → symbol value.
    symbol_registry: HashMap<String, Value>,
    /// Monotonic id source for fresh `Symbol()` values.
    next_symbol: u64,
    /// Every live symbol by its id, so a `@@sym:<id>` property key can be
    /// turned back into the symbol VALUE for `Object.getOwnPropertySymbols`.
    symbols_by_id: HashMap<u64, Value>,
    /// Well-known symbol ids (`Symbol.iterator` …) to their ECMAScript name.
    /// Identity is by id, not description, so a user `Symbol("Symbol.iterator")`
    /// is a distinct key.
    well_known_ids: HashMap<u64, String>,
    /// Suspended generator coroutines, indexed by `JsObj::Generator.id`.
    generators: Vec<GenCell>,
    /// Promise cells, indexed by `JsObj::Promise.id`.
    promises: Vec<PromiseCell>,
    /// `process.nextTick` callbacks (drained before promise microtasks).
    pub nextticks: std::collections::VecDeque<Task>,
    /// Promise-reaction / `queueMicrotask` microtasks.
    pub microtasks: std::collections::VecDeque<Task>,
    /// `setTimeout`/`setInterval`/`setImmediate` macrotasks.
    pub macrotasks: Vec<Timer>,
    /// Monotonic timer-id source.
    next_timer: u64,
    /// Cloned by I/O worker threads to post `IoTask`s back to the main-thread
    /// event loop. Kept alive for the host's lifetime so the loop's `recv` never
    /// sees a spurious `Disconnected` while a server is running.
    io_tx: Sender<IoTask>,
    /// Owned by the event loop (taken out for the blocking `recv`). Receives the
    /// `IoTask`s posted by I/O threads.
    io_rx: Option<Receiver<IoTask>>,
    /// Ref-count of "things keeping the process alive": open listeners, live
    /// sockets, ref'd handles. The loop exits only when this is `0` AND both task
    /// queues are empty. A pure script never touches it, so it exits exactly as
    /// before.
    open_handles: usize,
    /// In-process output sink. When `Some`, everything the program writes to
    /// stdout/stderr is appended here instead of reaching the process streams —
    /// what an embedder (a TUI that owns the terminal) needs so a `console.log`
    /// cannot corrupt its display. `None` (the default) is the ordinary
    /// standalone `node` behaviour: writes go straight to the real streams.
    ///
    /// Bytes, not `String`: a program may legitimately write output that is not
    /// valid UTF-8 (`process.stdout.write(Buffer.from([0xff]))`), and a `String`
    /// buffer can only hold the lossy `U+FFFD` transcription of it.
    capture: Option<Vec<u8>>,
    /// `process.exitCode`: the code the process exits with when the event loop
    /// drains, or `None` while unset. Separate from an explicit
    /// `process.exit(n)`, which exits immediately with `n`.
    pub exit_code: Option<i32>,
    /// Whether the `exit` event has already been emitted, so the `process.exit`
    /// path and the end-of-loop path cannot both fire it (Node's `_exiting`).
    pub exiting: bool,
    /// The one `globalThis` object. It has to be a singleton: `globalThis` is an
    /// identity in JS, so `globalThis === globalThis` is `true` and a property
    /// written through one read is visible through the next. Minting a fresh
    /// object per read made both false.
    global_obj: Value,
}

/// One `process.on`/`process.once` registration. `once` is not decoration: a
/// `once` listener must be UNREGISTERED before it runs, so a second `emit` of
/// the same event does not reach it. Treating `once` as an alias of `on` made
/// `process.once('e', f); process.emit('e'); process.emit('e')` call `f` twice
/// and leave it in `process.listeners('e')` — node v26.7.0 calls it once and
/// reports zero listeners afterwards.
#[derive(Clone)]
pub struct ProcListener {
    pub f: Value,
    pub once: bool,
}

/// A queued unit of work: either a JS callback invocation (`queueMicrotask`,
/// `nextTick`, timer body) or a native step (Promise reaction / async resume).
pub enum Task {
    Js { cb: Value, args: Vec<Value> },
    Native(Box<dyn FnOnce() -> Result<(), String>>),
}

impl Task {
    fn run(self) -> Result<(), String> {
        match self {
            Task::Js { cb, args } => invoke(&cb, args, None).map(|_| ()),
            Task::Native(f) => f(),
        }
    }
}

/// A scheduled macrotask (`setTimeout`/`setInterval`/`setImmediate`). Ordering
/// is by `(delay, seq)` — a deterministic virtual clock, never wall time.
pub struct Timer {
    pub id: u64,
    pub delay: f64,
    pub seq: u64,
    pub callback: Value,
    pub args: Vec<Value>,
    pub cancelled: bool,
    /// Repeat period in ms for a `setInterval` timer; `None` for the one-shot
    /// `setTimeout`/`setImmediate`. A repeating timer is re-armed with a fresh
    /// deadline each time it fires, so it keeps the loop alive indefinitely —
    /// exactly like Node, where `setInterval` runs until cleared.
    pub interval: Option<f64>,
    /// Node's `ref`/`unref` handle bit. Only a *referenced* pending timer keeps
    /// the event loop alive; an unref'd one still fires while the loop happens
    /// to be alive for another reason, but never holds it open by itself.
    pub refed: bool,
    /// Real wall-clock deadline (`now + delay`), used only on the real-clock
    /// path (an open handle or a pending interval). On the pure virtual clock
    /// this is ignored.
    pub deadline: Instant,
}

/// One suspended generator. `coro` is `None` only while actively running (taken
/// out across `Coroutine::resume`); `ctx` holds its volatile execution context
/// (frames/signal/error/exc) while suspended.
struct GenCell {
    coro: Option<corosensei::Coroutine<Value, Value, Result<Value, String>>>,
    /// Raw pointer to the coroutine body's `Yielder`, published on entry (same
    /// thread → valid for the body's life). Read by `yield` to suspend.
    yielder: *const (),
    ctx: GenContext,
    done: bool,
    /// True once the body has been resumed at least once (so it is suspended at a
    /// `yield`). `.return()`/`.throw()` only unwind a *started* generator.
    started: bool,
    /// A completion injected by `.return(v)` / `.throw(e)`: consumed by the next
    /// `yield` resume so the body unwinds (running any pending `finally`).
    inject: Option<GenInject>,
    /// True for an `async function*` body, where `await` AND `yield` share one
    /// coroutine yielder: `await` wraps its operand in an await marker so the
    /// driver can tell an internal suspension from a real yield.
    async_gen: bool,
    /// `[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]]` — pending requests as
    /// `(completion, step promise id)`. ECMA-262 27.6.3.6 keeps this queue so
    /// overlapping requests resume the body ONE AT A TIME and settle in request
    /// order; without it a second request issued before the first settles races
    /// past it and the results arrive swapped. `.next`, `.return` AND `.throw`
    /// all enqueue — a `.return()` that skipped the queue would terminate the
    /// body while an earlier `.next()` was still suspended on an `await`, and
    /// that `.next()` would then wrongly report `{done: true}`.
    queue: std::collections::VecDeque<(GenReq, u32)>,
    /// True while a queued request is being driven.
    running: bool,
    /// The [`stack_floor`] that applies while this generator's body is running.
    ///
    /// A corosensei coroutine executes on its OWN mmap'd stack, so the address
    /// range the thread's pthread record describes says nothing about how much
    /// room the body has left. Recorded from the coroutine's `Stack::limit()` at
    /// construction and swapped in around every resume; without it the guard
    /// compared a coroutine stack pointer against the main stack's floor and
    /// (depending on where mmap landed) either fired immediately or never.
    stack_floor: usize,
}

/// A forced completion pushed into a suspended generator by `.return()`/`.throw()`.
enum GenInject {
    Return(Value),
    Throw(Value),
}

/// One queued `[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]]` request. ECMA-262 27.6.3.6
/// `AsyncGeneratorEnqueue` records a *completion*, not just a sent value, which
/// is why `.return()` and `.throw()` queue behind pending `.next()` calls
/// instead of unwinding the body on the spot.
#[derive(Clone)]
pub enum GenReq {
    /// `.next(v)` — resume normally with `v`.
    Next(Value),
    /// `.return(v)` — resume with a forced return completion.
    Return(Value),
    /// `.throw(e)` — resume with a forced throw completion.
    Throw(Value),
}

/// The mutable "execution registers" swapped at every generator resume/suspend
/// boundary so a suspended generator's half-finished frame/signal state never
/// leaks into the resuming caller. The heap, function/class tables and globals
/// are shared and never swapped.
#[derive(Default)]
struct GenContext {
    frames: Vec<Frame>,
    error: Option<String>,
    exc: Option<Value>,
    signal: Option<Signal>,
}

thread_local! {
    /// Id of the generator whose body is currently executing, or `None` at the
    /// root. `yield` suspends this generator.
    static CUR_GEN: std::cell::Cell<Option<u32>> = const { std::cell::Cell::new(None) };
}

thread_local! {
    static HOST: RefCell<JsHost> = RefCell::new(JsHost::new());
}

/// Run `f` with mutable access to the thread-local host.
pub fn with_host<R>(f: impl FnOnce(&mut JsHost) -> R) -> R {
    HOST.with(|h| f(&mut h.borrow_mut()))
}

/// Reset the host to a clean slate (fresh module frame).
pub fn reset_host() {
    with_host(|h| *h = JsHost::new());
    // Drop any cached module handles / factory closure — they index the old heap.
    crate::module::reset();
}

impl Default for JsHost {
    fn default() -> Self {
        Self::new()
    }
}

impl JsHost {
    pub fn new() -> JsHost {
        let global_env = new_env(None);
        let (io_tx, io_rx) = std::sync::mpsc::channel();
        let mut h = JsHost {
            heap: Vec::new(),
            funcs: Vec::new(),
            tries: Vec::new(),
            globals: VarMap::default(),
            global_consts: rustc_hash::FxHashSet::default(),
            frames: vec![Frame {
                env: global_env.clone(),
                base_env: global_env.clone(),
                this_obj: None,
                new_target: None,
                home_class: None,
                line: 0,
                owner: None,
                is_module: true,
            }],
            global_env,
            error: None,
            exc: None,
            signal: None,
            pending_rejections: Vec::new(),
            process_listeners: IndexMap::new(),
            null_val: Value::Undef,
            protos: HashMap::new(),
            null_proto_objs: HashSet::new(),
            fn_props: HashMap::new(),
            accessors: HashMap::new(),
            prop_attrs: HashMap::new(),
            non_extensible: HashSet::new(),
            private_methods: HashSet::new(),
            array_holes: HashMap::new(),
            builtin_statics: HashMap::new(),
            object_proto: Value::Undef,
            proto_class: HashMap::new(),
            class_registry: HashMap::new(),
            error_protos: HashMap::new(),
            native_protos: HashMap::new(),
            symbol_registry: HashMap::new(),
            next_symbol: 1,
            symbols_by_id: HashMap::new(),
            well_known_ids: HashMap::new(),
            generators: Vec::new(),
            promises: Vec::new(),
            microtasks: std::collections::VecDeque::new(),
            nextticks: std::collections::VecDeque::new(),
            macrotasks: Vec::new(),
            next_timer: 1,
            io_tx,
            io_rx: Some(io_rx),
            open_handles: 0,
            capture: None,
            exit_code: None,
            exiting: false,
            global_obj: Value::Undef,
        };
        h.null_val = h.alloc(JsObj::Null);
        // `Object.prototype`: the chain root, its own `[[Prototype]]` is null.
        h.object_proto = h.new_object(IndexMap::new());
        h.global_obj = h.new_object(IndexMap::new());
        h
    }

    /// Whether `v` IS the one `globalThis` object (not merely an object).
    pub fn is_global_object(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        !matches!(self.global_obj, Value::Undef) && self.global_obj == *v
    }

    /// The `globalThis` object — one per host, so its identity and its
    /// properties both survive across reads.
    pub fn global_object(&mut self) -> Value {
        if matches!(self.global_obj, Value::Undef) {
            self.global_obj = self.new_object(IndexMap::new());
        }
        self.global_obj.clone()
    }

    // ── prototype chain ──────────────────────────────────────────────────
    /// The `[[Prototype]]` of a heap value, if explicitly linked.
    pub fn proto_of(&self, v: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = v {
            self.protos.get(i).cloned()
        } else {
            None
        }
    }
    /// Set `v`'s `[[Prototype]]` to `proto`. Null links the object as an explicit
    /// null-prototype object (recorded so `instanceof Object` reads false);
    /// undefined just clears any link without the null marker.
    pub fn set_proto(&mut self, v: &Value, proto: Value) {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = v {
            if self.is_null(&proto) {
                self.protos.remove(i);
                self.null_proto_objs.insert(*i);
            } else if matches!(proto, Value::Undef) {
                self.protos.remove(i);
            } else {
                self.protos.insert(*i, proto);
                self.null_proto_objs.remove(i);
            }
        }
    }
    /// Whether `v`'s `[[Prototype]]` was explicitly set to null.
    pub fn has_null_proto(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        matches!(v, Value::Obj(i) if self.null_proto_objs.contains(i))
    }
    pub fn object_proto(&self) -> Value {
        self.object_proto.clone()
    }
    /// Record that the prototype object `proto` belongs to the class constructor
    /// `class_val` (so instances can recover their constructor).
    pub fn tag_proto_class(&mut self, proto: &Value, class_val: Value) {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = proto {
            self.proto_class.insert(*i, class_val);
        }
    }
    /// The class constructor value nearest in `obj`'s prototype chain, if any.
    pub fn class_of(&self, obj: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
        let mut cur = self.proto_of(obj);
        while let Some(p) = cur {
            if let Value::Obj(i) = &p {
                if let Some(c) = self.proto_class.get(i) {
                    return Some(c.clone());
                }
            }
            cur = self.proto_of(&p);
        }
        None
    }
    /// The constructor display name of `obj` for `util.inspect` (empty ⇒ plain
    /// object, no prefix).
    pub fn ctor_name(&self, obj: &Value) -> String {
        if let Some(c) = self.class_of(obj) {
            if let Some(JsObj::Class(cv)) = self.get(&c) {
                return cv.name.clone();
            }
        }
        // A `function F(){}` constructor is not a `class`, so it has no
        // `proto_class` entry. V8's `getConstructorName` walks the prototype
        // chain for an own `constructor` that is a named function — which is
        // what makes `console.log(new F())` print `F { y: 2 }`.
        let mut cur = self.proto_of(obj);
        while let Some(p) = cur {
            let ctor = match self.get(&p) {
                Some(JsObj::Object(props)) => props.get("constructor").cloned(),
                Some(JsObj::Func(_)) | Some(JsObj::Class(_)) => self.fn_prop(&p, "constructor"),
                _ => None,
            };
            if let Some(f) = ctor {
                let n = self.callable_name(&f);
                if !n.is_empty() {
                    return n;
                }
            }
            cur = self.proto_of(&p);
        }
        String::new()
    }

    /// Whether a callable owns a `prototype` property. `MakeConstructor`
    /// (10.2.5) runs for an ordinary function definition and for every
    /// generator; an arrow, a `MethodDefinition`, an async function and a bound
    /// function are not constructors and own none.
    pub fn owns_prototype(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Class(_)) => true,
            Some(JsObj::Func(f)) => match self.funcs.get(f.def_id) {
                Some(d) => d.is_generator || !(d.is_arrow || d.is_async || d.is_method),
                None => false,
            },
            _ => false,
        }
    }

    /// A function's own-property table (created on demand).
    pub fn fn_prop(&self, v: &Value, name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = v {
            self.fn_props.get(i).and_then(|m| m.get(name).cloned())
        } else {
            None
        }
    }

    /// A class static member, inherited down the constructor chain: a subclass
    /// sees its superclass's `static` methods/fields (`Sub.create` → `Base.create`).
    pub fn class_static(&self, class_val: &Value, name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
        let mut cur = class_val.clone();
        loop {
            if let Some(v) = self.fn_prop(&cur, name) {
                return Some(v);
            }
            match self.get(&cur) {
                Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => cur = c.parent.clone()?,
                _ => return None,
            }
        }
    }

    /// The first `extends` ancestor that is NOT a user class — the builtin
    /// constructor a class chain bottoms out in (`class D extends Array {}` →
    /// the `Array` builtin), or `None` for a chain of user classes only.
    ///
    /// `class_static` walks `ClassVal.parent` and gives up the moment the parent
    /// stops being a `Class`, so a static declared by the BUILTIN half of the
    /// chain was unreachable: `D.from` read `undefined` where node inherits
    /// `Array.from`. Returning the ancestor lets the caller finish the lookup
    /// with an ordinary property read, which is what reaches a builtin's
    /// statics.
    pub fn class_builtin_ancestor(&self, class_val: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
        let mut cur = class_val.clone();
        loop {
            match self.get(&cur) {
                Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => cur = c.parent.clone()?,
                _ => return Some(cur),
            }
        }
    }
    pub fn set_fn_prop(&mut self, v: &Value, name: &str, val: Value) {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = v {
            self.fn_props
                .entry(*i)
                .or_default()
                .insert(name.to_string(), val);
        }
        // `name` and `prototype` are own properties of every function/class, but
        // never enumerable ones (SetFunctionName 10.2.9, MakeConstructor
        // 10.2.5), so `Object.keys(fn)` and `for (k in fn)` report only what a
        // script assigned. An ARRAY receiver reaching the same side table has no
        // such exotic keys — `arr.name = 'x'` is an ordinary enumerable property.
        if !matches!(self.kind_of(v), Some(ObjKind::Func) | Some(ObjKind::Class)) {
            return;
        }
        let attrs = match name {
            "name" => PropAttrs {
                writable: false,
                enumerable: false,
                configurable: true,
            },
            "prototype" => PropAttrs {
                writable: true,
                enumerable: false,
                configurable: false,
            },
            _ => return,
        };
        self.set_prop_attrs(v, name, attrs);
    }
    /// A user-assigned static on a builtin namespace (`Error.prepareStackTrace`).
    pub fn builtin_static(&self, ns: &str, name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
        self.builtin_statics
            .get(ns)
            .and_then(|m| m.get(name).cloned())
    }
    /// Assign a static on a builtin namespace (persists across fresh `Builtin`
    /// handles for the same namespace).
    pub fn set_builtin_static(&mut self, ns: &str, name: &str, val: Value) {
        self.builtin_statics
            .entry(ns.to_string())
            .or_default()
            .insert(name.to_string(), val);
    }
    /// Drop an own property from the side table (`delete arr.foo`,
    /// `delete fn.tag`). Reports whether the key was there.
    pub fn remove_fn_prop(&mut self, v: &Value, name: &str) -> bool {
        match v {
            Value::Obj(i) => self
                .fn_props
                .get_mut(i)
                .map(|m| m.shift_remove(name).is_some())
                .unwrap_or(false),
            _ => false,
        }
    }
    pub fn fn_prop_keys(&self, v: &Value) -> Vec<String> {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = v {
            self.fn_props
                .get(i)
                .map(|m| m.keys().cloned().collect())
                .unwrap_or_default()
        } else {
            Vec::new()
        }
    }

    /// Install an accessor `(get, set)` for `key` on the object `owner`.
    pub fn set_accessor(
        &mut self,
        owner: &Value,
        key: &str,
        get: Option<Value>,
        set: Option<Value>,
    ) {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = owner {
            // Accessors live in their own table, but JS reports own keys in a
            // single insertion order across data AND accessor properties. Drop an
            // ordering marker into the property map so
            // `{ a: 1, get b() {}, c: 3 }` enumerates a, b, c — not a, c, b.
            // The marker is `@@`-prefixed, so it is invisible to every reader.
            let marker = format!("{ORD_MARKER}{key}");
            match self.get_mut(owner) {
                Some(JsObj::Object(props)) => {
                    if !props.contains_key(key) && !props.contains_key(&marker) {
                        props.insert(marker, Value::Undef);
                    }
                }
                // A function or class keeps its own properties in the fn-prop
                // side table, so its ordering marker belongs there. Without it a
                // static accessor enumerated AFTER every static field and method
                // regardless of where the class body declared it: node reports
                // `class A { static s = 2; static get sv(){} static m(){} }` as
                // `['sv', 'm', 's']` — the methods and accessors in source order
                // first, then the fields — and this reported `['m', 's', 'sv']`.
                Some(JsObj::Func(_)) | Some(JsObj::Class(_)) => {
                    let table = self.fn_props.entry(*i).or_default();
                    if !table.contains_key(key) && !table.contains_key(&marker) {
                        table.insert(marker, Value::Undef);
                    }
                }
                _ => {}
            }
            let slot = self
                .accessors
                .entry(*i)
                .or_default()
                .entry(key.to_string())
                .or_insert((None, None));
            if get.is_some() {
                slot.0 = get;
            }
            if set.is_some() {
                slot.1 = set;
            }
        }
    }
    /// The accessor `(get, set)` for `key` directly on `owner` (no chain walk).
    pub fn own_accessor(&self, owner: &Value, key: &str) -> Option<(Option<Value>, Option<Value>)> {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = owner {
            self.accessors.get(i).and_then(|m| m.get(key).cloned())
        } else {
            None
        }
    }

    /// The own accessor-property keys of `owner`, in installation order.
    pub fn own_accessor_keys(&self, owner: &Value) -> Vec<String> {
        match owner {
            Value::Obj(i) => self
                .accessors
                .get(i)
                .map(|m| m.keys().cloned().collect())
                .unwrap_or_default(),
            _ => Vec::new(),
        }
    }

    // ── own-property attributes ──────────────────────────────────────────

    /// Record non-default attributes for `owner[key]`. Storing the default shape
    /// clears the entry so the table only ever holds deviations.
    pub fn set_prop_attrs(&mut self, owner: &Value, key: &str, attrs: PropAttrs) {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = owner {
            if attrs == PropAttrs::default() {
                if let Some(m) = self.prop_attrs.get_mut(i) {
                    m.shift_remove(key);
                }
            } else {
                self.prop_attrs
                    .entry(*i)
                    .or_default()
                    .insert(key.to_string(), attrs);
            }
        }
    }

    /// Copy every recorded property attribute from `from` to `to`. A pass that
    /// rebuilds an object (`JSON.stringify`'s `toJSON` walk) must carry them
    /// across or the copy silently re-exposes non-enumerable slots.
    pub fn copy_prop_attrs(&mut self, from: &Value, to: &Value) {
        if let (Value::Obj(f), Value::Obj(_)) = (from, to) {
            if let Some(m) = self.prop_attrs.get(f).cloned() {
                for (k, a) in m {
                    self.set_prop_attrs(to, &k, a);
                }
            }
        }
    }

    /// The attributes of own property `owner[key]` (all-true when unrecorded).
    pub fn prop_attrs(&self, owner: &Value, key: &str) -> PropAttrs {
        // An array's `length` is the array exotic's own property (10.4.2):
        // writable, but never enumerated and never configurable.
        if key == "length" && matches!(self.get(owner), Some(JsObj::Array(_))) {
            return PropAttrs {
                writable: true,
                enumerable: false,
                configurable: false,
            };
        }
        match owner {
            Value::Obj(i) => self
                .prop_attrs
                .get(i)
                .and_then(|m| m.get(key))
                .copied()
                .unwrap_or_default(),
            _ => PropAttrs::default(),
        }
    }

    /// Whether own property `owner[key]` shows up in `for-in`/`Object.keys`.
    /// Internal slots (`@@…`) and private class fields (`#…`) never do.
    pub fn is_enumerable(&self, owner: &Value, key: &str) -> bool {
        !key.starts_with("@@") && !key.starts_with('#') && self.prop_attrs(owner, key).enumerable
    }

    /// Mark `owner[key]` non-enumerable, leaving it writable/configurable — the
    /// shape of every V8 "hidden but real" own property.
    pub fn hide_prop(&mut self, owner: &Value, key: &str) {
        self.set_prop_attrs(owner, key, PropAttrs::HIDDEN);
    }

    /// Whether a plain `owner[key] = v` assignment is allowed to land. A
    /// non-writable data property silently ignores the write in sloppy mode,
    /// which is the mode every script here runs in; so does adding a *new* key to
    /// a non-extensible object.
    pub fn can_write_prop(&self, owner: &Value, key: &str) -> bool {
        if !self.prop_attrs(owner, key).writable {
            return false;
        }
        if self.is_extensible(owner) {
            return true;
        }
        match self.get(owner) {
            Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => p.contains_key(key),
            _ => true,
        }
    }

    /// Mark `v` closed to new properties (`Object.preventExtensions`).
    pub fn prevent_extensions(&mut self, v: &Value) {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = v {
            self.non_extensible.insert(*i);
        }
    }

    pub fn is_extensible(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        !matches!(v, Value::Obj(i) if self.non_extensible.contains(i))
    }

    /// Apply `Object.seal` (`freeze == false`) or `Object.freeze` (`true`): close
    /// the object and strip `configurable` — and, when freezing, `writable` —
    /// from every own property, data and accessor alike.
    pub fn seal_object(&mut self, v: &Value, freeze: bool) {
        self.prevent_extensions(v);
        let mut keys = match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => p.keys().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            _ => Vec::new(),
        };
        keys.extend(self.own_accessor_keys(v));
        for k in keys {
            let mut a = self.prop_attrs(v, &k);
            a.configurable = false;
            if freeze {
                a.writable = false;
            }
            self.set_prop_attrs(v, &k, a);
        }
    }

    /// `Object.isSealed` (`freeze == false`) / `Object.isFrozen` (`true`).
    pub fn is_sealed(&self, v: &Value, freeze: bool) -> bool {
        if self.is_extensible(v) {
            return false;
        }
        let mut keys = match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => p.keys().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            _ => Vec::new(),
        };
        keys.extend(self.own_accessor_keys(v));
        keys.iter().all(|k| {
            let a = self.prop_attrs(v, k);
            !a.configurable && (!freeze || !a.writable)
        })
    }

    /// A fresh unique `Symbol(desc)` value.
    pub fn new_symbol(&mut self, desc: Option<String>) -> Value {
        let id = self.next_symbol;
        self.next_symbol += 1;
        let v = self.alloc(JsObj::Symbol { desc, id });
        self.symbols_by_id.insert(id, v.clone());
        v
    }

    /// The symbol VALUE an internal symbol property key (`@@sym:<id>` or a
    /// well-known `@@iterator`) came from.
    pub fn symbol_of_key(&self, k: &str) -> Option<Value> {
        if let Some(id) = k.strip_prefix("@@sym:").and_then(|i| i.parse::<u64>().ok()) {
            return self.symbols_by_id.get(&id).cloned();
        }
        let name = k.strip_prefix("@@")?;
        WELL_KNOWN_SYMBOLS
            .contains(&name)
            .then(|| {
                self.symbol_registry
                    .get(&format!("@@Symbol.{name}"))
                    .cloned()
            })
            .flatten()
    }

    /// The own symbol-keyed property keys of `v` as SYMBOL values —
    /// `Object.getOwnPropertySymbols` / the symbol half of `Reflect.ownKeys`.
    pub fn own_symbol_keys(&self, v: &Value) -> Vec<Value> {
        let keys: Vec<String> = match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => p.keys().cloned().collect(),
            // An Array/Function receiver has no property map: its non-index own
            // properties — symbol-keyed ones included — live in the fn-prop side
            // table, and are just as much own properties as an object's.
            Some(_) => self.fn_prop_keys(v),
            None => return Vec::new(),
        };
        keys.iter().filter_map(|k| self.symbol_of_key(k)).collect()
    }

    /// The own SYMBOL-keyed enumerable `(internal key, value)` pairs of `v` —
    /// what `CopyDataProperties` (object spread, `Object.assign`) copies
    /// alongside the string keys, and what `Object.keys` / `for-in` /
    /// `JSON.stringify` deliberately skip.
    pub fn own_symbol_entries(&self, v: &Value) -> Vec<(String, Value)> {
        match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => p
                .iter()
                .filter(|(k, _)| is_symbol_key(k) && self.prop_attrs(v, k).enumerable)
                .map(|(k, val)| (k.clone(), val.clone()))
                .collect(),
            // Array/Function: the side table (see `own_symbol_keys`).
            Some(_) => self
                .fn_prop_keys(v)
                .into_iter()
                .filter(|k| is_symbol_key(k) && self.prop_attrs(v, k).enumerable)
                .map(|k| {
                    let val = self.fn_prop(v, &k).unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
                    (k, val)
                })
                .collect(),
            None => Vec::new(),
        }
    }
    /// The shared `Symbol.for(key)` value (interned by description).
    pub fn symbol_for(&mut self, key: &str) -> Value {
        if let Some(v) = self.symbol_registry.get(key) {
            return v.clone();
        }
        let s = self.new_symbol(Some(key.to_string()));
        self.symbol_registry.insert(key.to_string(), s.clone());
        s
    }
    /// `Symbol.keyFor(sym)`: the registry key `Symbol.for` interned `sym` under,
    /// or `undefined` for a symbol that is not in the registry at all.
    ///
    /// Matched by symbol IDENTITY, not by description — `Symbol.for('k')` and
    /// `Symbol('k')` share a description and only the first is registered. The
    /// `@@Symbol.*` well-known entries are registry-internal and never a
    /// `keyFor` answer, matching node: `Symbol.keyFor(Symbol.iterator)` is
    /// `undefined` there.
    pub fn symbol_registry_key(&mut self, sym: &Value) -> Value {
        let Some(key) = self
            .symbol_registry
            .iter()
            .find(|(k, v)| self.strict_eq(v, sym) && !k.starts_with("@@Symbol."))
            .map(|(k, _)| k.clone())
        else {
            return Value::Undef;
        };
        self.new_str(key)
    }
    /// The well-known `Symbol.iterator` (a fixed shared symbol whose internal
    /// property key is `@@iterator`).
    pub fn well_known_iterator(&mut self) -> Value {
        self.symbol_for("@@Symbol.iterator")
    }
    /// The well-known `Symbol.asyncIterator` (internal key `@@asyncIterator`).
    pub fn well_known_async_iterator(&mut self) -> Value {
        self.symbol_for("@@Symbol.asyncIterator")
    }
    /// A well-known symbol by its ECMAScript name (`toPrimitive`,
    /// `toStringTag`, …). Its internal property key is `@@<name>` — see
    /// [`WELL_KNOWN_SYMBOLS`] and `property_key`.
    ///
    /// Its DESCRIPTION is `Symbol.<name>`, so `String(Symbol.iterator)` prints
    /// `Symbol(Symbol.iterator)` as V8 does, while the registry key keeps the
    /// `@@` prefix — `Symbol.for('Symbol.iterator')` therefore stays a
    /// different symbol, and identification is by id, so a user-made
    /// `Symbol('Symbol.iterator')` is not mistaken for the well-known one.
    pub fn well_known_symbol(&mut self, name: &str) -> Value {
        let key = format!("@@Symbol.{name}");
        if let Some(v) = self.symbol_registry.get(&key) {
            return v.clone();
        }
        let s = self.new_symbol(Some(format!("Symbol.{name}")));
        if let Some(JsObj::Symbol { id, .. }) = self.get(&s) {
            self.well_known_ids.insert(*id, name.to_string());
        }
        self.symbol_registry.insert(key, s.clone());
        s
    }
    /// The internal property-key string for a value used as a key. A `Symbol`
    /// maps to a stable per-symbol string so symbol-keyed props round-trip;
    /// `Symbol.iterator` maps to the sentinel `@@iterator`.
    pub fn property_key(&self, v: &Value) -> String {
        if let Some(JsObj::Symbol { id, .. }) = self.get(v) {
            if let Some(n) = self.well_known_ids.get(id) {
                return format!("@@{n}");
            }
            return format!("@@sym:{id}");
        }
        self.str_of(v)
    }

    pub fn null(&self) -> Value {
        self.null_val.clone()
    }
    pub fn is_null(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        matches!(self.get(v), Some(JsObj::Null))
    }

    // ── program loading ──────────────────────────────────────────────────
    pub fn program_offsets(&self) -> (usize, usize) {
        (self.funcs.len(), self.tries.len())
    }
    pub fn load_program(&mut self, funcs: Vec<FuncDef>, tries: Vec<TryDef>) {
        self.funcs.extend(funcs);
        self.tries.extend(tries);
    }
    pub fn try_def(&self, id: usize) -> Option<TryDef> {
        self.tries.get(id).cloned()
    }

    /// What `try` statement `id` HAS — `(has handler, catch parameter name, has
    /// finalizer)` — without copying its chunks. Running a `try` used to clone
    /// the whole `TryDef`, so a `try` inside a loop deep-copied its block, its
    /// handler and its finalizer on every iteration just to learn its shape.
    pub fn try_shape(&self, id: usize) -> Option<(bool, Option<String>, bool)> {
        let t = self.tries.get(id)?;
        Some((
            t.handler.is_some(),
            t.handler.as_ref().and_then(|(bind, _)| bind.clone()),
            t.finalizer.is_some(),
        ))
    }

    /// One `try` part's bytecode: 0 = block, 1 = handler body, 2 = finalizer.
    /// Reached only when no pooled VM already holds that chunk.
    pub fn try_chunk(&self, id: usize, part: u64) -> Option<Chunk> {
        let t = self.tries.get(id)?;
        match part {
            0 => Some(t.block.clone()),
            1 => t.handler.as_ref().map(|(_, body)| body.clone()),
            _ => t.finalizer.clone(),
        }
    }

    // ── heap allocation / accessors ──────────────────────────────────────
    pub fn alloc(&mut self, obj: JsObj) -> Value {
        self.heap.push(obj);
        Value::Obj((self.heap.len() - 1) as u32)
    }
    pub fn get(&self, v: &Value) -> Option<&JsObj> {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = v {
            self.heap.get(*i as usize)
        } else {
            None
        }
    }
    pub fn get_mut(&mut self, v: &Value) -> Option<&mut JsObj> {
        if let Value::Obj(i) = v {
            self.heap.get_mut(*i as usize)
        } else {
            None
        }
    }
    /// Which variant `v` points at, without copying its contents. Use this in
    /// place of `get(v).cloned()` whenever only the tag is needed — see
    /// [`ObjKind`].
    pub fn kind_of(&self, v: &Value) -> Option<ObjKind> {
        self.get(v).map(JsObj::kind)
    }
    pub fn new_str(&mut self, s: impl Into<String>) -> Value {
        self.alloc(JsObj::Str(s.into()))
    }
    pub fn new_array(&mut self, items: Vec<Value>) -> Value {
        self.alloc(JsObj::Array(items))
    }

    /// Record that `name` was declared as a private method or accessor.
    pub fn note_private_method(&mut self, name: &str) {
        self.private_methods.insert(name.to_string());
    }

    /// Whether `name` was declared as a private method/accessor by some class,
    /// as opposed to a private field.
    pub fn is_private_method(&self, name: &str) -> bool {
        self.private_methods.contains(name)
    }

    /// The name of the class whose body the running function belongs to. Only a
    /// method of that class can even mention its private names, so this is the
    /// class a failed brand check must name.
    pub fn current_home_class_name(&self) -> Option<String> {
        match self.get(&self.current_home_class()?) {
            Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => Some(c.name.clone()),
            _ => None,
        }
    }

    /// Whether `recv` — or anything on its prototype chain — carries the private
    /// name `key`. A private FIELD is an own property of the instance; a private
    /// METHOD lives on the class prototype, one link up.
    pub fn has_private(&self, recv: &Value, key: &str) -> bool {
        let mut cur = Some(recv.clone());
        while let Some(v) = cur {
            let owns = match self.get(&v) {
                Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => p.contains_key(key),
                Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => c.statics.contains_key(key),
                _ => false,
            };
            if owns || self.own_accessor(&v, key).is_some() || self.fn_prop(&v, key).is_some() {
                return true;
            }
            cur = self.proto_of(&v);
        }
        false
    }

    // ── array holes ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────
    //
    // Every read/write of an array's elision set goes through this block. See
    // the `array_holes` field for why the marker lives here rather than in
    // `Value`.

    /// Whether element `i` of array `arr` is an elided element (a "hole"), as
    /// opposed to a stored `undefined`. `false` for anything that is not an
    /// array, and for every index of a dense one.
    pub fn is_hole(&self, arr: &Value, i: usize) -> bool {
        match (arr, ()) {
            (Value::Obj(idx), ()) => self.array_holes.get(idx).is_some_and(|hs| hs.contains(&i)),
            _ => false,
        }
    }

    /// Whether `arr` has any elided element at all — one hash probe, and the
    /// guard every hole-aware code path takes before doing anything slower.
    pub fn has_holes(&self, arr: &Value) -> bool {
        matches!(arr, Value::Obj(i) if self.array_holes.contains_key(i))
    }

    /// `arr`'s hole positions in ASCENDING order, or an empty vec if dense.
    /// Sorted because every consumer (own-key enumeration, `util.inspect`
    /// run-grouping) needs index order, and the backing set has none.
    pub fn hole_indices(&self, arr: &Value) -> Vec<usize> {
        let Value::Obj(i) = arr else {
            return Vec::new();
        };
        let Some(hs) = self.array_holes.get(i) else {
            return Vec::new();
        };
        let mut v: Vec<usize> = hs.iter().copied().collect();
        v.sort_unstable();
        v
    }

    /// Record element `i` of `arr` as elided.
    pub fn mark_hole(&mut self, arr: &Value, i: usize) {
        if let Value::Obj(idx) = arr {
            self.array_holes.entry(*idx).or_default().insert(i);
        }
    }

    /// Record `range` of `arr` as elided (a `new Array(n)`, a `length` grow, or
    /// the gap a write past the end opens).
    pub fn mark_hole_range(&mut self, arr: &Value, range: std::ops::Range<usize>) {
        if range.is_empty() {
            return;
        }
        if let Value::Obj(idx) = arr {
            self.array_holes.entry(*idx).or_default().extend(range);
        }
    }

    /// Element `i` now holds a real value: it is no longer a hole. Every write
    /// to an array index calls this, which is what keeps a stale hole record
    /// from outliving the elision it described.
    pub fn clear_hole(&mut self, arr: &Value, i: usize) {
        let Value::Obj(idx) = arr else { return };
        let Some(hs) = self.array_holes.get_mut(idx) else {
            return;
        };
        hs.remove(&i);
        if hs.is_empty() {
            self.array_holes.remove(idx);
        }
    }

    /// `arr` is dense from here on (`fill` over the whole array, a fresh
    /// dense assignment into an existing handle).
    pub fn clear_holes(&mut self, arr: &Value) {
        if let Value::Obj(idx) = arr {
            self.array_holes.remove(idx);
        }
    }

    /// Copy `src`'s elision set onto `dst`, optionally shifting each position by
    /// `f`. Used by every method that derives a new array whose holes track the
    /// source's (`slice`, `concat`, `map`).
    pub fn copy_holes(&mut self, src: &Value, dst: &Value, f: impl Fn(usize) -> Option<usize>) {
        if !self.has_holes(src) {
            return;
        }
        let moved: rustc_hash::FxHashSet<usize> =
            self.hole_indices(src).into_iter().filter_map(f).collect();
        self.install_holes(dst, moved);
    }

    /// Rewrite `arr`'s own elision set in place: `f(i)` gives the position each
    /// existing hole moves to, or `None` if the mutation removed it. This is the
    /// one primitive behind every structural array mutation — `shift` is
    /// `i.checked_sub(1)`, `unshift(k)` is `i + k`, `reverse` is `len-1-i`, and
    /// `splice` is the general case.
    pub fn remap_holes(&mut self, arr: &Value, f: impl Fn(usize) -> Option<usize>) {
        if !self.has_holes(arr) {
            return;
        }
        let moved: rustc_hash::FxHashSet<usize> =
            self.hole_indices(arr).into_iter().filter_map(f).collect();
        self.install_holes(arr, moved);
    }

    /// Replace `arr`'s elision set outright, dropping the record entirely when
    /// the new set is empty so `has_holes` stays a single negative probe for the
    /// dense case.
    pub fn install_holes(&mut self, arr: &Value, holes: rustc_hash::FxHashSet<usize>) {
        let Value::Obj(idx) = arr else { return };
        if holes.is_empty() {
            self.array_holes.remove(idx);
        } else {
            self.array_holes.insert(*idx, holes);
        }
    }

    /// Forget any hole at or past `len` — what a `pop`, a `length` shrink or a
    /// truncating `splice` leaves behind.
    pub fn truncate_holes(&mut self, arr: &Value, len: usize) {
        self.remap_holes(arr, |i| (i < len).then_some(i));
    }

    /// `util.inspect`'s `formatSpecialArray`: the element strings of a SPARSE
    /// array, where each maximal run of elided positions collapses to a single
    /// `<N empty items>` entry. Returns the entries and whether the last of them
    /// is the `... N more items` tail (which the grid layout must not size a
    /// column to).
    ///
    /// The `maxArrayLength` cap counts ENTRIES, not indices, so a run costs one
    /// slot however long it is — matching node, where `[ ...Array(200) ]`-style
    /// sparse arrays print a single `<200 empty items>`.
    fn inspect_sparse(
        &self,
        v: &Value,
        items: &[Value],
        indent: usize,
        st: &mut InspectCycles,
    ) -> (Vec<String>, bool) {
        let holes: rustc_hash::FxHashSet<usize> = self.hole_indices(v).into_iter().collect();
        let empties = |n: usize| {
            let unit = if n == 1 { "item" } else { "items" };
            format!("<{n} empty {unit}>")
        };
        let mut out: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
        // The first index not yet accounted for by an entry.
        let mut index = 0usize;
        for (i, it) in items.iter().enumerate() {
            if out.len() >= MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH {
                break;
            }
            if holes.contains(&i) {
                continue;
            }
            if i > index {
                out.push(empties(i - index));
                index = i;
                if out.len() >= MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH {
                    break;
                }
            }
            out.push(self.inspect_lvl(it, indent + 2, st));
            index = i + 1;
        }
        let remaining = items.len() - index;
        if remaining == 0 {
            return (out, false);
        }
        if out.len() < MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH {
            // Trailing holes are still `<N empty items>`, not a truncation.
            out.push(empties(remaining));
            (out, false)
        } else {
            let unit = if remaining == 1 { "item" } else { "items" };
            out.push(format!("... {remaining} more {unit}"));
            (out, true)
        }
    }
    pub fn new_object(&mut self, mut props: IndexMap<String, Value>) -> Value {
        // Integer-index keys enumerate ascending-first regardless of the order
        // they were supplied in (object literal, spread, Object.assign result).
        canonicalize_own_keys(&mut props);
        self.alloc(JsObj::Object(props))
    }
    pub fn as_str(&self, v: &Value) -> Option<String> {
        match v {
            Value::Str(s) => Some((**s).clone()),
            Value::Obj(_) => match self.get(v) {
                Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => Some(s.clone()),
                _ => None,
            },
            _ => None,
        }
    }

    // ── scope / names ────────────────────────────────────────────────────
    fn frame(&self) -> &Frame {
        self.frames.last().unwrap()
    }
    fn cur_env(&self) -> Env {
        self.frame().env.clone()
    }

    // ── DAP debug introspection (used only under `--dap`) ────────────────────
    /// Number of active call frames (the debugger's step-depth reference).
    pub fn frame_depth(&self) -> usize {
        self.frames.len()
    }
    /// Record the source line the innermost frame is executing (DAP line hook).
    pub fn set_cur_line(&mut self, line: u32) {
        if let Some(f) = self.frames.last_mut() {
            f.line = line;
        }
    }
    /// The `.stack` tail for an error created right now: one `    at <name>`
    /// line per live frame, innermost first, ending at the module frame.
    ///
    /// These are the REAL user frames — node-js has no `file:line:column` (the
    /// per-frame line is only tracked under `--dap`) and no Node-internal
    /// module-loader frames, so `.stack` names the call chain but can never be
    /// byte-identical to V8's. The names are what makes a thrown error
    /// diagnosable; the missing positions are documented in BUGS.md.
    pub fn stack_frames(&self) -> String {
        let mut out = String::new();
        for (i, f) in self.frames.iter().enumerate().rev() {
            let name = match (&f.owner, i) {
                (Some(n), _) => n.clone(),
                (None, 0) => "Object.<anonymous>".to_string(),
                (None, _) => "<anonymous>".to_string(),
            };
            out.push_str("\n    at ");
            out.push_str(&name);
        }
        if out.is_empty() {
            out.push_str("\n    at <anonymous>");
        }
        out
    }

    /// The call stack as (frame name, line) pairs, innermost first — for the DAP
    /// `stackTrace`. `owner` carries the function name where known.
    pub fn dbg_stack(&self) -> Vec<(String, u32)> {
        self.frames
            .iter()
            .rev()
            .map(|f| {
                let name = f.owner.clone().unwrap_or_else(|| "<module>".to_string());
                (name, f.line)
            })
            .collect()
    }
    /// The innermost frame's locals as (name, inspect) pairs — for DAP `variables`.
    pub fn dbg_locals(&self) -> Vec<(String, String)> {
        let env = self.cur_env();
        let names: Vec<String> = env.borrow().vars.keys().cloned().collect();
        names
            .into_iter()
            .map(|n| {
                let v = self.read_name(&n).unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
                (n, self.inspect(&v))
            })
            .collect()
    }

    /// Scope-chain read: local + enclosing chain, then globals.
    pub fn read_name(&self, name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
        let mut env = Some(self.cur_env());
        while let Some(e) = env {
            if let Some(v) = e.borrow().vars.get(name) {
                return Some(v.clone());
            }
            env = e.borrow().parent.clone();
        }
        self.globals.get(name).cloned()
    }
    pub fn read_global(&self, name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
        self.globals.get(name).cloned()
    }

    /// Whether `name` is bound anywhere on the scope chain or in the globals —
    /// `read_name(..).is_some()` without cloning the value it finds. The
    /// strict-mode assignment path asks this and nothing else.
    pub fn has_name(&self, name: &str) -> bool {
        let mut env = Some(self.cur_env());
        while let Some(e) = env {
            if e.borrow().vars.contains_key(name) {
                return true;
            }
            env = e.borrow().parent.clone();
        }
        self.globals.contains_key(name)
    }

    /// Assign to an existing binding up the scope chain, else create a global
    /// (JS assignment to an undeclared name targets the global object).
    /// Assign to an existing binding, or create a global. Returns `false` when
    /// the nearest binding is an immutable (`const`) one, which the caller turns
    /// into `TypeError: Assignment to constant variable.` — assigning to a
    /// `const` used to succeed SILENTLY, so code that node rejects ran on with
    /// a mutated constant.
    #[must_use]
    pub fn set_name(&mut self, name: &str, val: Value) -> bool {
        let mut env = Some(self.cur_env());
        while let Some(e) = env {
            // `get_mut`, not `contains_key` + `insert`: overwriting an existing
            // binding hashed the name twice and allocated a fresh `String` key
            // for a key that was already there — once per assignment, so once
            // per loop iteration in any counting loop.
            //
            // The const check runs only at the env that OWNS the name, and the
            // `is_empty` guard settles the common (no consts here) case without
            // hashing the name again.
            let mut b = e.borrow_mut();
            if b.vars.contains_key(name) {
                if !b.consts.is_empty() && b.consts.contains(name) {
                    return false;
                }
                if let Some(slot) = b.vars.get_mut(name) {
                    *slot = val;
                }
                return true;
            }
            drop(b);
            env = e.borrow().parent.clone();
        }
        if self.global_consts.contains(name) {
            return false;
        }
        match self.globals.get_mut(name) {
            Some(slot) => *slot = val,
            None => {
                self.globals.insert(name.to_string(), val);
            }
        }
        true
    }

    /// Declare a `const` binding: the same placement as [`Self::declare_name`],
    /// plus recording the name as immutable in whichever scope received it.
    pub fn declare_const_name(&mut self, name: &str, val: Value) {
        let f = self.frame();
        let to_globals = f.is_module && Rc::ptr_eq(&f.env, &f.base_env);
        self.declare_name(name, val);
        if to_globals {
            self.global_consts.insert(name.to_string());
        } else {
            self.cur_env().borrow_mut().consts.insert(name.to_string());
        }
    }

    /// Declare a new binding in the current scope (`let`/`const`). At the top of
    /// the module frame there is no local env, so those names become globals; once
    /// a block scope is open the binding belongs to that block.
    pub fn declare_name(&mut self, name: &str, val: Value) {
        let f = self.frame();
        if f.is_module && Rc::ptr_eq(&f.env, &f.base_env) {
            self.globals.insert(name.to_string(), val);
        } else {
            self.cur_env()
                .borrow_mut()
                .vars
                .insert(name.to_string(), val);
        }
    }

    /// Declare a `var` (or a hoisted function declaration): FUNCTION-scoped, so it
    /// skips every open block scope and lands in the activation's base env.
    /// Create a hoisted `var` binding, initialised to `undefined`, only when the
    /// name is not already bound in this activation.
    ///
    /// `var` bindings come into existence when the scope is entered, not where
    /// the declaration is written — `f(){ x; var x = 1 }` reads `undefined`
    /// rather than throwing. "If absent" is what keeps a parameter intact: in
    /// `function f(a) { var a; }` the `var` names a binding that already exists
    /// and must not be reset, which is also why a bare `var x;` emits nothing at
    /// its own position.
    pub fn hoist_var_name(&mut self, name: &str) {
        if self.frame().is_module {
            self.globals.entry(name.to_string()).or_insert(Value::Undef);
            return;
        }
        let base = self.frame().base_env.clone();
        let mut env = base.borrow_mut();
        if !env.vars.contains_key(name) {
            env.vars.insert(name.to_string(), Value::Undef);
        }
    }

    pub fn declare_var_name(&mut self, name: &str, val: Value) {
        if self.frame().is_module {
            self.globals.insert(name.to_string(), val);
            return;
        }
        let base = self.frame().base_env.clone();
        base.borrow_mut().vars.insert(name.to_string(), val);
    }

    /// Enter a fresh block scope.
    pub fn push_scope(&mut self) {
        let env = self.cur_env();
        self.frames.last_mut().unwrap().env = child_env(env);
    }

    /// Leave the innermost block scope (never pops past the activation's base).
    pub fn pop_scope(&mut self) {
        let cur = self.cur_env();
        if Rc::ptr_eq(&cur, &self.frame().base_env) {
            return;
        }
        let parent = cur.borrow().parent.clone();
        if let Some(p) = parent {
            self.frames.last_mut().unwrap().env = p;
        }
    }

    /// Replace the innermost block scope with a fresh copy of its bindings — the
    /// per-iteration environment a `for (let i …)` loop creates, so a closure made
    /// in one iteration keeps that iteration's value.
    pub fn copy_scope(&mut self) {
        let cur = self.cur_env();
        if Rc::ptr_eq(&cur, &self.frame().base_env) {
            return;
        }
        let parent = cur.borrow().parent.clone();
        let fresh = new_env(parent);
        fresh.borrow_mut().vars = cur.borrow().vars.clone();
        self.frames.last_mut().unwrap().env = fresh;
    }

    /// The current block-scope env, for save/restore across a nested chunk.
    pub fn scope_snapshot(&self) -> Env {
        self.cur_env()
    }
    pub fn restore_scope(&mut self, env: Env) {
        self.frames.last_mut().unwrap().env = env;
    }
    pub fn set_global(&mut self, name: &str, val: Value) {
        self.globals.insert(name.to_string(), val);
    }

    // ── output capture ───────────────────────────────────────────────────
    //
    // Every write a *program* makes — `console.log`, `process.stdout.write`,
    // `print` — funnels through `write_out`, so turning capture on redirects all
    // of them at once. Diagnostics the runtime itself emits (the REPL banner, a
    // crash traceback from `main`) deliberately do not: they belong to the
    // process, not to the program.

    /// Start capturing program output in-process. Any text already captured is
    /// discarded, so each run starts clean.
    pub fn begin_capture(&mut self) {
        self.capture = Some(Vec::new());
    }

    /// Stop capturing and take everything written since [`begin_capture`],
    /// returning the empty string when capture was not on. The captured bytes
    /// are rendered lossily: this API hands back a `String`, so a program that
    /// wrote non-UTF-8 gets `U+FFFD` here even though the same write reaches a
    /// real stdout byte-exact. Use [`end_capture_bytes`] to keep those bytes.
    ///
    /// [`begin_capture`]: JsHost::begin_capture
    /// [`end_capture_bytes`]: JsHost::end_capture_bytes
    pub fn end_capture(&mut self) -> String {
        String::from_utf8_lossy(&self.capture.take().unwrap_or_default()).into_owned()
    }

    /// Stop capturing and take the raw bytes, without the lossy transcription
    /// [`end_capture`] applies.
    ///
    /// [`end_capture`]: JsHost::end_capture
    pub fn end_capture_bytes(&mut self) -> Vec<u8> {
        self.capture.take().unwrap_or_default()
    }

    /// Whether output is being captured — the one thing a caller needs to know
    /// before asking the real stream a question (`isTTY`, cursor position).
    pub fn capturing(&self) -> bool {
        self.capture.is_some()
    }

    /// Write program output: into the capture buffer when capturing, else to the
    /// process stream `stderr` selects. `s` is written verbatim — callers add
    /// their own line ending, as `console.log` does and `process.stdout.write`
    /// does not.
    pub fn write_out(&mut self, s: &str, stderr: bool) {
        self.write_out_bytes(s.as_bytes(), stderr);
    }

    /// Write program output as raw BYTES. `process.stdout.write(buf)` hands Node
    /// a byte string and Node writes it through untouched, so a `Buffer` holding
    /// `ff fe 41` reaches stdout as those three bytes. Routing it through a Rust
    /// `String` first replaced every non-UTF-8 byte with `U+FFFD` — three bytes
    /// became seven — so the byte path exists separately from [`write_out`].
    ///
    /// [`write_out`]: JsHost::write_out
    pub fn write_out_bytes(&mut self, bytes: &[u8], stderr: bool) {
        if let Some(buf) = &mut self.capture {
            buf.extend_from_slice(bytes);
            return;
        }
        use std::io::Write as _;
        if stderr {
            let mut e = std::io::stderr();
            let _ = e.write_all(bytes);
            let _ = e.flush();
        } else {
            let mut o = std::io::stdout();
            let _ = o.write_all(bytes);
            let _ = o.flush();
        }
    }
    pub fn del_name(&mut self, name: &str) {
        if self
            .cur_env()
            .borrow_mut()
            .vars
            .shift_remove(name)
            .is_some()
        {
            return;
        }
        self.globals.shift_remove(name);
    }

    pub fn current_this(&self) -> Option<Value> {
        self.frame().this_obj.clone()
    }
    /// The callbacks to run for `event`, consuming any `once` registration in
    /// the same step — so a listener that re-emits the event cannot re-enter a
    /// one-shot handler.
    pub fn take_process_listeners(&mut self, event: &str) -> Vec<Value> {
        let Some(list) = self.process_listeners.get_mut(event) else {
            return Vec::new();
        };
        let fired: Vec<Value> = list.iter().map(|l| l.f.clone()).collect();
        list.retain(|l| !l.once);
        fired
    }

    /// Bind the TOP-LEVEL `this` — the value a `this` outside any function sees.
    ///
    /// Node answers differently per entry point and both answers are objects:
    /// `node f.js` runs a CommonJS module, so top-level `this` is
    /// `module.exports`; `node -e` and `node -` run a Script, so it is
    /// `globalThis`. Verified on node v26.7.0 —
    /// `console.log(this === globalThis, this === module.exports)` is
    /// `false true` from a file and `true false` from `-e` and from stdin. It
    /// was `undefined` at every entry point here, so `this.x = 1` at module
    /// scope threw instead of populating the exports object.
    ///
    /// Only the base frame is touched: a plain function call still gets its own
    /// (`undefined`) binding rather than inheriting this one.
    pub fn set_top_this(&mut self, v: Value) {
        if let Some(f) = self.frames.first_mut() {
            f.this_obj = Some(v);
        }
    }
    pub fn current_env_capture(&self) -> Env {
        self.frame().env.clone()
    }
    pub fn current_new_target(&self) -> Option<Value> {
        self.frame().new_target.clone()
    }
    fn current_home_class(&self) -> Option<Value> {
        self.frame().home_class.clone()
    }

    /// The `(parent_ctor, this_class_fields)` for a running constructor's
    /// `super(...)`, derived from the frame's home class.
    pub fn super_context(&self) -> (Option<Value>, Vec<(String, Value, bool)>) {
        match self.current_home_class() {
            Some(cv) => match self.get(&cv) {
                Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => (c.parent.clone(), c.fields.clone()),
                _ => (None, Vec::new()),
            },
            None => (None, Vec::new()),
        }
    }

    /// Resolve `super.name` to either the parent-prototype getter (to be invoked
    /// by the caller, outside any host borrow) or a directly-usable value.
    pub fn super_resolve(&self, name: &str) -> SuperRef {
        let parent = match self
            .current_home_class()
            .and_then(|cv| match self.get(&cv) {
                Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => c.parent.clone(),
                _ => None,
            }) {
            Some(p) => p,
            None => return SuperRef::Data(Value::Undef),
        };
        let parent_proto = match self.get(&parent) {
            Some(JsObj::Class(pc)) => pc.proto.clone(),
            _ => self.fn_prop(&parent, "prototype").unwrap_or(Value::Undef),
        };
        if let Some((Some(getter), _)) = lookup_accessor(self, &parent_proto, name) {
            return SuperRef::Getter(getter);
        }
        SuperRef::Data(lookup_chain(self, &parent_proto, name).unwrap_or(Value::Undef))
    }

    // ── signals / errors ─────────────────────────────────────────────────
    pub fn take_error(&mut self) -> Option<String> {
        self.error.take()
    }
    pub fn raise_str(&mut self, class: &str, msg: &str) -> String {
        let s = if msg.is_empty() {
            class.to_string()
        } else {
            format!("{class}: {msg}")
        };
        self.error = Some(s.clone());
        s
    }
}

// ── error constructors ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────

pub fn type_error(msg: &str) -> String {
    format!("TypeError: {msg}")
}
pub fn ref_error(name: &str) -> String {
    format!("ReferenceError: {name} is not defined")
}
pub fn range_error(msg: &str) -> String {
    format!("RangeError: {msg}")
}

/// V8's `String::kMaxLength` on a 64-bit build, in UTF-16 code units — the
/// largest string the engine will materialize.
///
/// Measured on node v26.7.0 (darwin arm64):
/// `require('buffer').constants.MAX_STRING_LENGTH` is `536870888`,
/// `'a'.repeat(536870888)` succeeds with that length, and
/// `'a'.repeat(536870889)` is `RangeError: Invalid string length`.
pub const MAX_STRING_LENGTH: usize = 536_870_888;

/// The error V8 raises for a string operation whose RESULT would exceed
/// [`MAX_STRING_LENGTH`]. It is raised from the length arithmetic, before any
/// allocation: `'a'.repeat(2**40)` throws promptly on node where node-js used to
/// sit building a 1 TiB `String` until it was killed.
pub fn invalid_string_length() -> String {
    range_error("Invalid string length")
}

/// `ToUint32`-validated array length — ECMA-262 10.4.2.2 `ArrayCreate` step 1
/// and 10.4.2.4 `ArraySetLength` step 3.
///
/// A length is legal only if `ToUint32(v)` equals `ToNumber(v)` exactly, so
/// `-1`, `1.5`, `NaN`, `Infinity`, `'x'` and `2**32` are all
/// `RangeError: Invalid array length` while `'3'` is `3` and `-0` is `0`
/// (measured on node v26.7.0: `new Array(-0).length` is `0`, `a.length = '3'`
/// leaves `3`, `a.length = 'x'` throws). node-js validated none of them — it
/// built `[-1]` from `new Array(-1)`, silently ignored `a.length = -1`, and sat
/// materializing four billion elements for `a.length = 2**32`.
pub fn to_array_length(v: &Value) -> Result<usize, String> {
    let n = to_number_value(v)?;
    // `ToUint32`: truncate toward zero, then modulo 2^32.
    let u = if n.is_finite() {
        (n.trunc() as i64).rem_euclid(1i64 << 32) as u32
    } else {
        0
    };
    // `-0` compares equal to `0` here, which is what makes `new Array(-0)` legal.
    if (u as f64) != n {
        return Err(range_error("Invalid array length"));
    }
    Ok(u as usize)
}

/// A Node *coded* error raised from the JS layer: `Name [ERR_CODE]: message`.
///
/// `builtins::synth_error` parses that head back apart, so the bracketed code
/// becomes the enumerable `err.code` that `err.code === 'ERR_INVALID_URL'`-style
/// handling reads. Writing the head by hand at each throw site is what left a
/// dozen of them with `err.code === undefined` while the message matched.
///
/// Use this for errors Node raises from `lib/internal/errors.js`, whose `.name`
/// is left bracketed while the stack is captured and therefore shows up in both
/// `String(err)` and `err.stack` — measured on v26.7.0:
///
/// ```text
/// process.exit(1.5) -> RangeError [ERR_OUT_OF_RANGE]: The value of "code" …
/// ```
pub fn coded_error(class: &str, code: &str, msg: &str) -> String {
    format!("{class} [{code}]: {msg}")
}

/// The marker `plain_coded_error` hides a code behind, and `synth_error` strips.
pub const CODE_MARK: &str = "\u{1}code:";

/// A Node coded error raised from the *native* layer: `.code` is set, but the
/// name is never bracketed, so `String(err)` is the plain `Name: message`.
///
/// The distinction is observable and is not a stylistic choice — on v26.7.0,
/// `String(new URL("/x") error)` is `TypeError: Invalid URL` with
/// `.code === 'ERR_INVALID_URL'`, while the JS-layer `process.exit(1.5)` error
/// brackets its code into the very same two reads. Encoding both through one
/// `Name [CODE]:` head would have to pick one and be wrong about the other.
///
/// The code rides in a marker at the head of the message rather than in the
/// error class, because the class text is exactly what must NOT carry it. The
/// marker is an internal wire format between a throw site and `synth_error`; it
/// never survives into a `.message`.
pub fn plain_coded_error(class: &str, code: &str, msg: &str) -> String {
    format!("{class}: {CODE_MARK}{code}\u{1}{msg}")
}

/// `TypeError [ERR_INVALID_ARG_TYPE]: The "<name>" <kind> must be of type
/// <expected>. Received …` — Node's single most common argument rejection.
pub fn invalid_arg_type(name: &str, kind: &str, expected: &str, v: &Value) -> String {
    coded_error(
        "TypeError",
        "ERR_INVALID_ARG_TYPE",
        &format!(
            "The \"{name}\" {kind} must be of type {expected}. Received {}",
            crate::stdlib::received_desc(v)
        ),
    )
}

// ── the fusevm run plumbing ──────────────────────────────────────────────────

thread_local! {
    static DEBUG_MODE: std::cell::Cell<bool> = const { std::cell::Cell::new(false) };
}

/// Enable/disable DAP debug execution (`node --dap`).
pub fn set_debug_mode(on: bool) {
    DEBUG_MODE.with(|d| d.set(on));
}

// ── join cycle detection ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────

thread_local! {
    /// Heap handles whose join is in progress, innermost last — V8's JoinStack.
    static JOIN_STACK: RefCell<Vec<u32>> = const { RefCell::new(Vec::new()) };
}

/// V8's `JoinStackPush`: record that `v` is being joined, or report `false` if
/// it already is.
///
/// `Array.prototype.join` (and `toString`/`toLocaleString`, which route through
/// it) is the one place the language walks an object graph with no depth bound,
/// so every engine cuts re-entrance here: a receiver already on the stack
/// contributes the EMPTY STRING rather than recursing. Measured on node v26.7.0,
/// `const a=[1]; a.push(a); a.push(2); a.join('-')` is `"1--2"`, and
/// `String(a)`/`` `${a}` `` on `a=[a]` are both `""`. node-js had no such cut and
/// recursed until the native stack overflowed, ABORTING the process (exit 134) —
/// uncatchable, where node returns a string.
///
/// Only re-entrance is cut, not repetition: `[a,a].join('|')` still renders `a`
/// twice, because the first render pops before the second pushes.
///
/// A `true` return MUST be paired with [`join_stack_pop`].
pub fn join_stack_push(v: &Value) -> bool {
    match v {
        Value::Obj(i) => JOIN_STACK.with(|s| {
            let mut s = s.borrow_mut();
            if s.contains(i) {
                false
            } else {
                s.push(*i);
                true
            }
        }),
        _ => true,
    }
}

/// Pop the innermost [`join_stack_push`].
pub fn join_stack_pop() {
    JOIN_STACK.with(|s| {
        s.borrow_mut().pop();
    });
}

// ── native stack guard ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────

thread_local! {
    /// Lowest stack address a nested run may start from, or 0 before the
    /// running thread's bounds have been measured. Cached because the pthread
    /// query is a syscall-free but non-trivial read and this is on every call.
    static STACK_FLOOR: std::cell::Cell<usize> = const { std::cell::Cell::new(0) };
}

/// Stack left unusable below the floor, as a fraction of the whole stack: the
/// throw itself still has to unwind, build an `Error`, capture `.stack` and run
/// whatever `catch` receives it, all of which needs room *below* the deepest
/// call that was allowed.
const STACK_RESERVE_DIVISOR: usize = 8;
/// Floor of that reserve, for a thread whose stack is small enough that an
/// eighth of it would not cover the unwind.
const STACK_RESERVE_MIN: usize = 512 * 1024;
/// Reserve assumed on a platform whose stack bounds cannot be queried. Deliberately
/// large relative to a default 8 MiB stack — over-reserving costs recursion
/// depth, under-reserving costs the process.
const STACK_RESERVE_FALLBACK: usize = 1024 * 1024;

/// The address of a local in the caller's frame — how far down the stack
/// execution currently is. `black_box` keeps the probe from being optimized into
/// a different frame.
fn stack_pointer() -> usize {
    let probe = 0u8;
    std::hint::black_box(&probe) as *const u8 as usize
}

/// The running thread's `(lowest address, size)` stack bounds.
///
/// Asked of pthread rather than assumed, because the three threads that run JS
/// have three different stacks: the `node` binary's own (`main.rs` reserves
/// [`crate::JS_STACK_SIZE`]), a `worker_threads` thread's, and a `cargo test`
/// harness thread's. A fixed byte budget would be wrong on two of the three.
fn stack_bounds() -> Option<(usize, usize)> {
    #[cfg(target_vendor = "apple")]
    {
        // SAFETY: both calls are pure reads of the calling thread's own
        // pthread record; neither allocates nor can fail.
        unsafe {
            let me = libc::pthread_self();
            let top = libc::pthread_get_stackaddr_np(me) as usize;
            let size = libc::pthread_get_stacksize_np(me);
            if size == 0 || top < size {
                return None;
            }
            Some((top - size, size))
        }
    }
    #[cfg(target_os = "linux")]
    {
        // SAFETY: `attr` is initialized by `pthread_getattr_np` before it is
        // read, only read on the success path, and destroyed on every path.
        unsafe {
            let mut attr: libc::pthread_attr_t = std::mem::zeroed();
            if libc::pthread_getattr_np(libc::pthread_self(), &mut attr) != 0 {
                return None;
            }
            let mut low: *mut libc::c_void = std::ptr::null_mut();
            let mut size: libc::size_t = 0;
            let ok = libc::pthread_attr_getstack(&attr, &mut low, &mut size) == 0;
            libc::pthread_attr_destroy(&mut attr);
            if ok && size != 0 {
                return Some((low as usize, size));
            }
            None
        }
    }
    #[cfg(not(any(target_vendor = "apple", target_os = "linux")))]
    {
        None
    }
}

/// The stack address below which a further nested VM run must throw instead of
/// recursing.
///
/// Every JS call is a Rust-level recursion — `run_user_func_nt` pushes a
/// [`Frame`], then `run_chunk_on` builds a whole new `fusevm::VM` on the stack
/// and runs the body, whose own calls land back here. Unbounded JS recursion
/// therefore used to exhaust the OS stack and ABORT: `fatal runtime error:
/// stack overflow`, exit 134, which no `try`/`catch` can see. V8 throws a
/// catchable `RangeError: Maximum call stack size exceeded` instead (measured on
/// node v26.7.0: `let d=0; function f(){d++;f()}` reports depth 9901).
///
/// The floor is derived from the thread's real bounds rather than a frame count
/// because a node-js frame has no fixed size — a debug build spends ~98 KiB per
/// JS call (measured: `node -e 'function f(n){…f(n-1)}'` survived 83 on an 8 MiB
/// stack and no more), a release build far less, and a native builtin recursing
/// through a user callback spends a different amount again.
fn stack_floor() -> usize {
    let cached = STACK_FLOOR.with(|c| c.get());
    if cached != 0 {
        return cached;
    }
    let floor = match stack_bounds() {
        Some((low, size)) => low + (size / STACK_RESERVE_DIVISOR).max(STACK_RESERVE_MIN),
        None => stack_pointer().saturating_sub(STACK_RESERVE_FALLBACK),
    };
    STACK_FLOOR.with(|c| c.set(floor));
    floor
}

/// Stack given to each generator/async coroutine.
///
/// corosensei's default is 1 MiB, which at a debug build's ~98 KiB per JS call
/// left a `function*` body barely ten frames of recursion before it walked off
/// the end. The mapping is `PROT_NONE` reserved and `mprotect`ed, so the cost of
/// a larger one is address space, not resident memory — but it IS per live
/// generator, so this stays far below the entry thread's
/// [`crate::JS_STACK_SIZE`]: a program with thousands of concurrent async calls
/// has thousands of these.
const CORO_STACK_SIZE: usize = 16 * 1024 * 1024;

/// The [`stack_floor`] that applies while a coroutine on `stack` is running.
fn coro_stack_floor(stack: &impl corosensei::stack::Stack) -> usize {
    stack.limit().get() + (CORO_STACK_SIZE / STACK_RESERVE_DIVISOR).max(STACK_RESERVE_MIN)
}

/// corosensei's own `DefaultStack::default()` size, used only when the
/// [`CORO_STACK_SIZE`] reservation is refused and the coroutine therefore runs
/// on a stack whose bounds are not ours to read.
const CORO_FALLBACK_STACK_SIZE: usize = 1024 * 1024;

/// Give a coroutine whose stack bounds are unknown a floor measured from where
/// its body starts. Called once, at body entry, on the coroutine's own stack.
fn ensure_coroutine_floor() {
    if STACK_FLOOR.with(|c| c.get()) != 0 {
        return;
    }
    let budget = CORO_FALLBACK_STACK_SIZE
        - (CORO_FALLBACK_STACK_SIZE / STACK_RESERVE_DIVISOR).max(STACK_RESERVE_MIN);
    STACK_FLOOR.with(|c| c.set(stack_pointer().saturating_sub(budget)));
}

/// Install `floor` as the current stack floor, returning the previous one.
///
/// Used around a coroutine resume, which switches to a stack the thread's
/// pthread record knows nothing about. A floor of 0 means "not known" and makes
/// the next [`stack_floor`] measure again, which is the right answer for the
/// entry thread and a conservative one for a fallback coroutine stack.
fn swap_stack_floor(floor: usize) -> usize {
    STACK_FLOOR.with(|c| c.replace(floor))
}

/// Whether the native stack is too close to its floor for one more nested run.
pub fn stack_exhausted() -> bool {
    stack_pointer() <= stack_floor()
}

/// The error V8 raises when the call stack is exhausted. Catchable, and with the
/// `RangeError` constructor node uses — not a `panic!`.
pub fn stack_overflow_error() -> String {
    range_error("Maximum call stack size exceeded")
}

/// Pool key for the body of user function `def_id`.
pub fn func_key(def_id: usize) -> u64 {
    1 << 40 | def_id as u64
}

/// Pool key for one part of `try` statement `try_id`: 0 = the block, 1 = the
/// handler, 2 = the finalizer.
pub fn try_key(try_id: usize, part: u64) -> u64 {
    2 << 40 | (try_id as u64) << 2 | part
}

thread_local! {
    /// VMs that have finished a run, kept for the next one — grouped by the
    /// chunk they still hold.
    ///
    /// Every JS call, every `try` block and every generator step runs its chunk
    /// through [`run_chunk_on`], which used to build a `fusevm::VM` from
    /// scratch: three `Vec` allocations, 70 `register_builtin` writes, an `Arc`
    /// for the numeric hook, and the JIT enable — per call. `fib(27)` makes
    /// 400k calls, so it built 400k VMs to run 23 ops each.
    ///
    /// Worse, the caller had to hand over an OWNED `Chunk`, so every call also
    /// deep-copied the function's whole compiled body: six `Vec`s, a `String`,
    /// and `sub_chunks` recursively. Keying the pool by chunk means a repeated
    /// call takes back the VM that already holds that body and copies nothing:
    /// `VM::reset` is handed the chunk the VM was already carrying.
    ///
    /// `VM::reset` keeps the builtin table, the hooks and the JIT setting, so a
    /// recycled VM needs none of that again. Each key holds a stack of VMs, and
    /// a nested (or recursive) call takes the next one, so a key grows to the
    /// deepest simultaneous entry into that function and no further.
    static VM_POOL: RefCell<rustc_hash::FxHashMap<u64, Vec<VM>>> =
        RefCell::new(rustc_hash::FxHashMap::default());
}

/// An idle VM filed under `key`, if any.
fn take_pooled(key: u64) -> Option<VM> {
    VM_POOL.with(|p| p.borrow_mut().get_mut(&key).and_then(|v| v.pop()))
}

/// File a finished VM under `key` for the next run to take.
fn put_pooled(key: u64, vm: VM) {
    VM_POOL.with(|p| p.borrow_mut().entry(key).or_default().push(vm));
}

/// Take a VM ready to run `chunk` — recycled if one is idle, otherwise built
/// and fitted with the builtins and hooks a fresh VM needs.
fn acquire_vm(chunk: Chunk) -> VM {
    if let Some(mut vm) = take_pooled(0) {
        vm.reset(chunk);
        return vm;
    }
    let mut vm = VM::new(chunk);
    crate::builtins::install(&mut vm);
    vm.set_numeric_hook(std::sync::Arc::new(|op, a, b| {
        crate::builtins::numeric_hook(op, a, b)
    }));
    // Under `--dap` the tracing JIT would compile hot loops and skip the
    // per-statement `DBG_LINE` markers, so debug runs stay on the pure
    // interpreter. The `DBG_LINE` builtin fires the debugger line hook; the
    // extension seam mirrors pythonrs should the marker emission ever switch.
    // The mode is fixed before the first chunk runs, so a pooled VM can never
    // come back wearing the wrong one.
    if DEBUG_MODE.with(|d| d.get()) {
        vm.set_extension_handler(Box::new(|vm, id, _| {
            crate::dap::on_ext(vm, id);
        }));
    } else {
        vm.enable_tracing_jit();
    }
    vm
}

/// Register every node-js builtin + the numeric hook on a VM, then run it.
///
/// For a chunk that runs once — a module body, an `eval` — there is nothing to
/// key a pool by, so this resets a spare VM with the caller's chunk. Anything
/// that runs repeatedly (a function body, a `try` block) goes through
/// [`run_chunk_keyed`] instead and never copies its chunk twice.
pub fn run_chunk_on(chunk: Chunk) -> Result<Value, String> {
    // Checked before the `VM` is built: `VM::new` + `install` are themselves
    // several KiB of frame, so a check after them could already have overflowed.
    if stack_exhausted() {
        return Err(stack_overflow_error());
    }
    finish_run(0, acquire_vm(chunk))
}

/// Run the chunk filed under `key`, building it with `make` only if no VM is
/// already holding it. A recycled VM re-runs the chunk it kept, so a repeated
/// call copies no bytecode at all.
pub fn run_chunk_keyed(key: u64, make: impl FnOnce() -> Chunk) -> Result<Value, String> {
    if stack_exhausted() {
        return Err(stack_overflow_error());
    }
    let vm = match take_pooled(key) {
        Some(mut vm) => {
            // Hand the VM back the chunk it is already carrying: `reset` takes
            // an owned `Chunk`, and this is the one place where the owned chunk
            // costs nothing.
            let held = std::mem::take(&mut vm.chunk);
            vm.reset(held);
            vm
        }
        None => acquire_vm(make()),
    };
    finish_run(key, vm)
}

/// Run a prepared VM to completion and file it back under `key`.
fn finish_run(key: u64, mut vm: VM) -> Result<Value, String> {
    let outcome = vm.run();
    let result = match outcome {
        _ if with_host(|h| h.error.is_some()) => {
            Err(with_host(|h| h.take_error()).expect("just checked"))
        }
        VMResult::Ok(v) => Ok(v),
        VMResult::Halted => Ok(vm.stack.last().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Undef)),
        VMResult::Error(e) => Err(e),
    };
    put_pooled(key, vm);
    result
}

/// Run `chunk` in the GLOBAL scope instead of the caller's.
///
/// `run_chunk_on` executes on whatever frame is current, so a nested run sees —
/// and can shadow — the *calling function's* locals. That is right for a direct
/// `eval`, and wrong for every other runtime-source construct: a `new Function`
/// body, an indirect `eval` and `vm.runInThisContext` are all specified to run
/// in the global scope (ECMA-262 19.2.1.1 `PerformEval` with a null
/// `strictCaller`/`direct` pair; `FunctionBody` is instantiated with the *global*
/// environment, 20.2.1.1.1 step 26). Measured against node v26.7.0,
/// `function outer(){ let loc = 42; return vm.runInThisContext('typeof loc'); }`
/// is `"undefined"` there and was `"number"` here.
///
/// A `var` the chunk itself declares lands in the top-level scope and persists,
/// so successive `vm.runInThisContext` calls share it.
pub fn run_chunk_in_global_scope(chunk: Chunk) -> Result<Value, String> {
    let global_env = with_host(|h| h.global_env.clone());
    with_host(|h| {
        h.frames.push(Frame {
            env: global_env.clone(),
            base_env: global_env,
            this_obj: None,
            new_target: None,
            home_class: None,
            line: 0,
            owner: None,
            is_module: true,
        })
    });
    let r = run_chunk_on(chunk);
    with_host(|h| {
        h.frames.pop();
    });
    r
}

/// Run the top-level program chunk, then drain the event loop (microtasks +
/// timers) until quiescent — matching Node, which keeps the process alive while
/// pending async work remains.
pub fn run_main(chunk: Chunk) -> Result<Value, String> {
    let r = run_chunk_on(chunk);
    with_host(|h| h.signal = None);
    if r.is_ok() {
        run_event_loop()?;
        finish_process_events()?;
    }
    r
}

/// The shutdown sequence Node runs once the loop has drained on its own: fire
/// `beforeExit` (which MAY schedule more work, in which case the loop runs
/// again and `beforeExit` fires again), then fire `exit` exactly once.
///
/// Neither event fired at all before this existed, so `process.on('exit', …)`
/// was a registration with no delivery — a listener whose body printed was
/// silently dropped, and one that set `process.exitCode` could not affect the
/// status. Measured on node v26.7.0,
/// `process.on('exit', c => console.log('exit', c))` prints `exit 0`.
///
/// An explicit `process.exit()` never reaches here (it leaves the process from
/// inside the builtin), and neither does an uncaught exception — matching
/// Node, where `beforeExit` is skipped on both paths.
fn finish_process_events() -> Result<(), String> {
    // Bounded: a `beforeExit` listener that re-arms work every time would spin
    // forever, exactly as it does in Node, but a runaway here would hang a
    // parity run with no output, so it is capped and then treated as drained.
    for _ in 0..1000 {
        let code = with_host(|h| h.exit_code).unwrap_or(0);
        if !crate::stdlib::process::emit_before_exit(code)? {
            break;
        }
        let more =
            with_host(|h| h.has_microtasks() || h.open_handles() > 0 || h.has_refed_macrotasks());
        if !more {
            break;
        }
        run_event_loop()?;
    }
    let code = with_host(|h| h.exit_code).unwrap_or(0);
    crate::stdlib::process::emit_exit_event(code)
}

// ── formatting ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

/// Format a JS number exactly as `Number.prototype.toString` does for the common
/// range (no exponential-notation threshold handling for very large/small).
pub fn fmt_number(f: f64) -> String {
    if f.is_nan() {
        return "NaN".into();
    }
    if f.is_infinite() {
        return if f > 0.0 { "Infinity" } else { "-Infinity" }.into();
    }
    if f == 0.0 {
        // Covers -0.0 too: (-0).toString() === "0".
        return "0".into();
    }
    if f < 0.0 {
        return format!("-{}", js_number_repr(-f));
    }
    js_number_repr(f)
}

/// If `k` is an array-index property key, return its numeric value. Per
/// ECMAScript, a String property key `P` is an array index iff
/// `ToString(ToUint32(P)) === P` and `ToUint32(P) !== 2^32 - 1` — i.e. a
/// canonical decimal (no leading zeros, no sign) in the range `0..=2^32-2`.
pub fn array_index(k: &str) -> Option<u32> {
    if k.is_empty() {
        return None;
    }
    if k == "0" {
        return Some(0);
    }
    // A leading '0' (other than the lone "0" above) is non-canonical.
    if k.as_bytes()[0] == b'0' {
        return None;
    }
    if !k.bytes().all(|b| b.is_ascii_digit()) {
        return None;
    }
    match k.parse::<u64>() {
        // Array index must be < 2^32-1; u32::MAX == 2^32-1 is excluded.
        Ok(n) if n < u32::MAX as u64 => Some(n as u32),
        _ => None,
    }
}

/// Compare two own-property keys for `OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys` enumeration order:
/// integer-index keys sort ascending-numeric and precede all string keys; two
/// non-index keys compare `Equal` so a *stable* sort leaves them in insertion
/// order. (Symbols are stored as `@@…`/`#…` string keys and are non-index, so
/// they also fall into the stable-insertion-order tail.)
pub fn key_order_cmp(a: &str, b: &str) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
    use std::cmp::Ordering;
    match (array_index(a), array_index(b)) {
        (Some(x), Some(y)) => x.cmp(&y),
        (Some(_), None) => Ordering::Less,
        (None, Some(_)) => Ordering::Greater,
        (None, None) => Ordering::Equal,
    }
}

/// Reorder an object's own-property map into `OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys` order in
/// place: array-index keys ascending first, then the remaining keys in their
/// existing (insertion) order. A no-op unless at least one index key is present,
/// so the overwhelmingly common all-string-key object keeps its exact order and
/// pays nothing. `IndexMap::sort_by` is a stable sort.
pub fn canonicalize_own_keys(props: &mut IndexMap<String, Value>) {
    if props.keys().any(|k| array_index(k).is_some()) {
        props.sort_by(|ak, _, bk, _| key_order_cmp(ak, bk));
    }
}

/// ECMAScript `Number::toString` layout for a positive, finite, nonzero value.
///
/// Rust's `Display`/`LowerExp` give the shortest round-trip decimal digits, but
/// NOT JavaScript's exponential-vs-fixed threshold: Rust prints `1e21` as
/// `1000000000000000000000` and `1e-7` as `0.0000001`, whereas JS prints `1e+21`
/// and `1e-7`. So we take the shortest digits from `{:e}` and re-lay them out per
/// the spec (steps 5–10 of Number::toString): `k` significant digits `s` with
/// decimal exponent `n` (value = s × 10^(n−k)); exponential form only when
/// `n > 21` or `n ≤ -6`.
fn js_number_repr(a: f64) -> String {
    // `{:e}` yields `d[.ddd]e<exp>` with the mantissa in [1, 10) and shortest
    // round-trip digits. Split it into the digit string `s` and exponent `E`.
    let sci = format!("{a:e}");
    let (mant, exp_str) = sci.split_once('e').expect("LowerExp always has 'e'");
    let e: i32 = exp_str.parse().expect("LowerExp exponent is an integer");
    let s: String = mant.chars().filter(|c| *c != '.').collect();
    let k = s.len() as i32; // number of significant digits
    let n = e + 1; // value = s × 10^(n−k), 10^(k−1) ≤ s < 10^k

    if k <= n && n <= 21 {
        // Integer with trailing zeros: all digits, then n−k zeros.
        let mut out = s;
        out.push_str(&"0".repeat((n - k) as usize));
        out
    } else if 0 < n && n <= 21 {
        // Decimal point inside the digit run: n digits, '.', the rest.
        format!("{}.{}", &s[..n as usize], &s[n as usize..])
    } else if -6 < n && n <= 0 {
        // Leading "0." then (−n) zeros then all digits.
        format!("0.{}{}", "0".repeat((-n) as usize), s)
    } else {
        // Exponential form. Exponent digit is n−1, always signed.
        let exp = n - 1;
        let sign = if exp >= 0 { '+' } else { '-' };
        let mag = exp.abs();
        if k == 1 {
            format!("{s}e{sign}{mag}")
        } else {
            format!("{}.{}e{sign}{mag}", &s[..1], &s[1..])
        }
    }
}

impl JsHost {
    /// The `typeof` string for `v`.
    pub fn type_of(&self, v: &Value) -> &'static str {
        match v {
            Value::Undef => "undefined",
            Value::Bool(_) => "boolean",
            Value::Int(_) | Value::Float(_) => "number",
            Value::Str(_) => "string",
            Value::Obj(_) => match self.get(v) {
                Some(JsObj::Str(_)) => "string",
                // 10.5's `[[Call]]` slot exists on a proxy exactly when its
                // target is callable, so `typeof` classifies by the target —
                // `typeof new Proxy(function(){}, {})` is `'function'`. The walk
                // is bounded: a proxy of a proxy defers again.
                Some(JsObj::Proxy { target, .. }) => {
                    let mut cur = target;
                    for _ in 0..100 {
                        match self.get(cur) {
                            Some(JsObj::Proxy { target: t, .. }) => cur = t,
                            _ => break,
                        }
                    }
                    if is_callable(self, cur) {
                        "function"
                    } else {
                        "object"
                    }
                }
                Some(JsObj::Func(_))
                | Some(JsObj::BoundMethod { .. })
                | Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { .. })
                | Some(JsObj::Class(_)) => "function",
                // A Builtin is a callable (`Array`, `parseInt`, `Math.floor`) —
                // `typeof === "function"` — EXCEPT the non-callable namespace
                // objects (`Math`, `JSON`, `require('fs')`, …) which are "object".
                Some(JsObj::Builtin(n)) => {
                    const NON_CALLABLE_NS: &[&str] = &[
                        // The live `require.cache` view is a plain object to a
                        // script, not something it can call.
                        crate::builtins::REQUIRE_CACHE,
                        "Math",
                        "JSON",
                        "console",
                        "Reflect",
                        "process",
                        "Atomics",
                        "performance",
                        "fs",
                        "path",
                        "os",
                        "util",
                        "crypto",
                        "querystring",
                        "events",
                        "stream",
                        "timers",
                        "perf_hooks",
                        "async_hooks",
                        "diagnostics_channel",
                        "v8",
                        "dns",
                        "punycode",
                        "child_process",
                        "tty",
                        "url",
                        "zlib",
                        "string_decoder",
                        "assert",
                        "http",
                        "net",
                        "buffer",
                    ];
                    if NON_CALLABLE_NS.contains(&n.as_str()) {
                        "object"
                    } else {
                        "function"
                    }
                }
                Some(JsObj::Symbol { .. }) => "symbol",
                Some(JsObj::BigInt(_)) => "bigint",
                _ => "object", // arrays, objects, null, Map/Set, generators
            },
            _ => "object",
        }
    }

    /// JS truthiness: false / 0 / -0 / NaN / "" / null / undefined are falsy.
    pub fn truthy(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        match v {
            Value::Undef => false,
            Value::Bool(b) => *b,
            Value::Int(n) => *n != 0,
            Value::Float(f) => *f != 0.0 && !f.is_nan(),
            Value::Str(s) => !s.is_empty(),
            Value::Obj(_) => match self.get(v) {
                Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => !s.is_empty(),
                Some(JsObj::Null) => false,
                Some(JsObj::BigInt(b)) => !num_traits::Zero::is_zero(b),
                _ => true, // arrays, objects, functions
            },
            _ => true,
        }
    }

    /// Coerce to a number (`ToNumber`): the arithmetic-context conversion.
    pub fn to_number(&self, v: &Value) -> f64 {
        match v {
            Value::Undef => f64::NAN,
            Value::Bool(b) => {
                if *b {
                    1.0
                } else {
                    0.0
                }
            }
            Value::Int(n) => *n as f64,
            Value::Float(f) => *f,
            Value::Str(s) => str_to_number(s),
            Value::Obj(_) => match self.get(v) {
                Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => str_to_number(s),
                Some(JsObj::Null) => 0.0,
                Some(JsObj::BigInt(b)) => bigint_to_f64(b),
                Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => {
                    // [] -> 0, [x] -> ToNumber(x), else NaN.
                    if items.is_empty() {
                        0.0
                    } else if items.len() == 1 {
                        self.to_number(&items[0])
                    } else {
                        f64::NAN
                    }
                }
                _ => f64::NAN,
            },
            _ => f64::NAN,
        }
    }

    /// `String(v)` — the string-coercion form (raw, unquoted).
    pub fn str_of(&self, v: &Value) -> String {
        match v {
            Value::Undef => "undefined".into(),
            Value::Bool(b) => if *b { "true" } else { "false" }.into(),
            Value::Int(n) => n.to_string(),
            Value::Float(f) => fmt_number(*f),
            Value::Str(s) => (**s).clone(),
            Value::Obj(_) => match self.get(v) {
                Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => s.clone(),
                Some(JsObj::Null) => "null".into(),
                Some(JsObj::BigInt(b)) => b.to_string(),
                Some(JsObj::RegExp(r)) => format!("/{}/{}", r.source, r.flags),
                Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => {
                    // Array.prototype.toString: comma-join, null/undefined -> "".
                    // Guarded by the JoinStack (see `join_stack_push`) so a
                    // self-referential array yields "" instead of recursing until
                    // the native stack aborts the process.
                    if !join_stack_push(v) {
                        return String::new();
                    }
                    let parts: Vec<String> = items
                        .iter()
                        .map(|x| match x {
                            Value::Undef => String::new(),
                            _ if self.is_null(x) => String::new(),
                            _ => self.str_of(x),
                        })
                        .collect();
                    join_stack_pop();
                    parts.join(",")
                }
                Some(JsObj::Object(props)) => {
                    // A native `Buffer` stringifies to its decoded (utf-8)
                    // contents, matching `buf.toString()` — needed for `'' + buf`,
                    // template interpolation, and `data += chunk` (the pattern
                    // Express/body-parser use to read a request body).
                    if props.get("@@native").map(|t| self.str_of(t)).as_deref() == Some("Buffer") {
                        let bytes: Vec<u8> = match props.get("@@bytes").and_then(|b| self.get(b)) {
                            Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => {
                                items.iter().map(|x| self.to_number(x) as u8).collect()
                            }
                            _ => Vec::new(),
                        };
                        String::from_utf8_lossy(&bytes).into_owned()
                    } else if let Some(s) = self.error_to_string(v) {
                        s
                    } else {
                        "[object Object]".into()
                    }
                }
                Some(JsObj::Func(f)) => {
                    // A function built from runtime source (`new Function`,
                    // `vm.compileFunction`) retains the exact text V8 synthesizes
                    // for it, so `Function.prototype.toString` reports what Node
                    // reports. Ordinary functions carry no source here (the
                    // compiler keeps no spans), so they fall back to a placeholder.
                    if let Some(src) = self.fn_prop(v, "@@source") {
                        return self.str_of(&src);
                    }
                    let name = self
                        .funcs
                        .get(f.def_id)
                        .map(|d| d.name.clone())
                        .unwrap_or_default();
                    format!("function {name}() {{ [code] }}")
                }
                Some(JsObj::Builtin(n)) => format!("function {n}() {{ [native code] }}"),
                Some(JsObj::BoundMethod { .. }) | Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { .. }) => {
                    "function () { [native code] }".into()
                }
                // `Function.prototype.toString` refuses to expose a proxy's
                // target: V8 reports the native-code form for a proxy of ANY
                // callable, so `String(new Proxy(function f(){}, {}))` is
                // `function () { [native code] }`, not `f`'s source.
                Some(JsObj::Proxy { .. }) if is_callable(self, v) => {
                    "function () { [native code] }".into()
                }
                Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => format!("class {} {{ }}", c.name),
                Some(JsObj::Symbol { desc, .. }) => {
                    // `String(sym)` is allowed (unlike implicit coercion) and yields
                    // `Symbol(desc)`.
                    match desc {
                        Some(d) => format!("Symbol({d})"),
                        None => "Symbol()".into(),
                    }
                }
                _ => "[object Object]".into(),
            },
            _ => "[object Object]".into(),
        }
    }

    /// The `Symbol.toStringTag` string `util.inspect` renders as a `[Tag]`
    /// prefix. V8 suppresses the tag when it is an OWN ENUMERABLE property,
    /// because it is then already listed as a `Symbol(Symbol.toStringTag): …`
    /// entry and showing it twice would be wrong.
    ///
    /// Only a DATA property is seen. A tag supplied by a prototype getter
    /// (`class C { get [Symbol.toStringTag]() { … } }`) would need a JS call,
    /// which cannot run under the host borrow `inspect` holds — such an object
    /// prints without the prefix.
    fn inspect_tag(&self, v: &Value) -> Option<String> {
        let own = matches!(self.get(v), Some(JsObj::Object(p)) if p.contains_key("@@toStringTag"));
        if own && self.prop_attrs(v, "@@toStringTag").enumerable {
            return None;
        }
        let t = lookup_chain(self, v, "@@toStringTag")?;
        self.as_str(&t)
    }

    /// `console.log`-style rendering of a top-level argument: bare strings print
    /// raw; everything else uses `inspect`.
    pub fn console_format(&self, v: &Value) -> String {
        match v {
            Value::Str(_) => self.str_of(v),
            Value::Obj(_) if matches!(self.get(v), Some(JsObj::Str(_))) => self.str_of(v),
            _ => self.inspect(v),
        }
    }

    /// `util.inspect`-style rendering (nested; strings quoted).
    pub fn inspect(&self, v: &Value) -> String {
        self.inspect_lvl(v, 0, &mut InspectCycles::default())
    }

    /// `util.inspect` at a given indentation level, with the cycle guard applied
    /// around the object cases.
    ///
    /// A value already being rendered further up the chain is a CYCLE, and Node
    /// marks both ends of it: the back-edge prints `[Circular *N]` and the
    /// object it points back at is prefixed `<ref *N>`. Without this the walk
    /// only stopped when the depth limit turned the back-edge into `[Object]`,
    /// so `const c={a:1}; c.c=c` printed the misleading
    /// `{ a: 1, c: { a: 1, c: { a: 1, c: [Object] } } }` instead of
    /// `<ref *1> { a: 1, c: [Circular *1] }`.
    ///
    /// The `*N` id is only assigned when the back-edge is reached, i.e. while
    /// the target's own children are being rendered — so the prefix can only be
    /// decided after `inspect_value` returns.
    fn inspect_lvl(&self, v: &Value, indent: usize, st: &mut InspectCycles) -> String {
        if !matches!(v, Value::Obj(_)) {
            return self.inspect_value(v, indent, st);
        }
        if st.seen.iter().any(|p| self.strict_eq(p, v)) {
            return format!("[Circular *{}]", st.mark(self, v));
        }
        st.seen.push(v.clone());
        let body = self.inspect_value(v, indent, st);
        st.seen.pop();
        match st.id_of(self, v) {
            Some(id) => format!("<ref *{id}> {body}"),
            None => body,
        }
    }

    /// The rendering itself, once `inspect_lvl` has established that `v` is not
    /// a back-edge into an object already on the stack.
    fn inspect_value(&self, v: &Value, indent: usize, st: &mut InspectCycles) -> String {
        match v {
            Value::Undef => "undefined".into(),
            Value::Bool(b) => if *b { "true" } else { "false" }.into(),
            Value::Int(n) => n.to_string(),
            // `util.inspect` distinguishes negative zero; `String(-0)` does not.
            Value::Float(f) if *f == 0.0 && f.is_sign_negative() => "-0".into(),
            Value::Float(f) => fmt_number(*f),
            Value::Str(s) => quote_str(s),
            Value::Obj(_) => match self.get(v) {
                Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => quote_str(s),
                Some(JsObj::Null) => "null".into(),
                // `util.inspect` renders a bigint with the `n` suffix, a regex bare.
                Some(JsObj::BigInt(b)) => format!("{b}n"),
                Some(JsObj::RegExp(r)) => format!("/{}/{}", r.source, r.flags),
                // `util.inspect` on node v26.7.0 renders a proxy as
                // `Proxy(<target>)` — the target's own rendering, wrapped. It
                // deliberately does NOT run the handler's traps, so this stays a
                // pure `&self` read like every other inspect arm.
                Some(JsObj::Proxy { target, .. }) => {
                    format!("Proxy({})", self.inspect_lvl(target, indent, st))
                }
                Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => {
                    // Own enumerable non-index string props (e.g. a `str.match(re)`
                    // result's `index`/`input`/`groups`, or a user-assigned
                    // `arr.foo`) render after the elements, as `key: value`.
                    let prop_keys: Vec<String> = self
                        .fn_prop_keys(v)
                        .into_iter()
                        .filter(|k| {
                            !k.starts_with("@@")
                                && !k.starts_with('#')
                                && self.prop_attrs(v, k).enumerable
                        })
                        .collect();
                    // An own enumerable SYMBOL-keyed property renders after the
                    // string keys as `Symbol(desc): value`, as it does on an
                    // object receiver.
                    let sym_entries = self.own_symbol_entries(v);
                    if items.is_empty() && prop_keys.is_empty() && sym_entries.is_empty() {
                        return "[]".into();
                    }
                    // Node's default inspect depth is 2 (root = depth 0); deeper
                    // nesting collapses to `[Array]`. indent grows by 2 per level.
                    if indent > 2 * inspect_max_depth() {
                        return "[Array]".into();
                    }
                    // `util.inspect`'s `maxArrayLength` (default 100): only the
                    // first 100 elements are formatted, and the rest collapse to
                    // a `... N more items` entry. Without the cap a 120-element
                    // array printed all 120 — and, because the grid column width
                    // is computed from what is SHOWN, every column was also one
                    // character wider than node's.
                    // A SPARSE array takes node's `formatSpecialArray` path: an
                    // elided run renders as `<N empty items>` rather than as the
                    // `undefined` it reads back as.
                    let (mut inner, has_tail) = if self.has_holes(v) {
                        self.inspect_sparse(v, items, indent, st)
                    } else {
                        let shown = items.len().min(MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH);
                        let mut inner: Vec<String> = items[..shown]
                            .iter()
                            .map(|x| self.inspect_lvl(x, indent + 2, st))
                            .collect();
                        let remaining = items.len() - shown;
                        if remaining > 0 {
                            let unit = if remaining == 1 { "item" } else { "items" };
                            inner.push(format!("... {remaining} more {unit}"));
                        }
                        (inner, remaining > 0)
                    };
                    let has_props = !prop_keys.is_empty() || !sym_entries.is_empty();
                    for k in &prop_keys {
                        let val = self.fn_prop(v, k).unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
                        inner.push(format!(
                            "{}: {}",
                            fmt_key(k),
                            self.inspect_lvl(&val, indent + 2, st)
                        ));
                    }
                    for (k, val) in &sym_entries {
                        let label = match self.symbol_of_key(k) {
                            Some(s) => self.inspect(&s),
                            None => continue,
                        };
                        inner.push(format!(
                            "{label}: {}",
                            self.inspect_lvl(val, indent + 2, st)
                        ));
                    }
                    self.render_array(&inner, items, indent, has_props, has_tail, "")
                }
                // `URLSearchParams` renders its pairs, not its slots:
                // `URLSearchParams { 'a' => '1', 'b' => '2' }`. Keys repeat,
                // which is why it is a pair list rather than a Map rendering.
                Some(JsObj::Object(props))
                    if props.get("@@native").map(|t| self.str_of(t)).as_deref()
                        == Some("URLSearchParams") =>
                {
                    let pairs: Vec<Value> = match props.get("@@pairs").and_then(|a| self.get(a)) {
                        Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => items.clone(),
                        _ => Vec::new(),
                    };
                    if pairs.is_empty() {
                        return "URLSearchParams {}".into();
                    }
                    let inner: Vec<String> = pairs
                        .iter()
                        .filter_map(|kv| match self.get(kv) {
                            Some(JsObj::Array(p)) if p.len() == 2 => Some(format!(
                                "{} => {}",
                                self.inspect_lvl(&p[0], indent + 2, st),
                                self.inspect_lvl(&p[1], indent + 2, st)
                            )),
                            _ => None,
                        })
                        .collect();
                    self.render_object(&inner, "URLSearchParams ", indent)
                }
                // A typed array renders as `Uint8Array(3) [ 1, 2, 3 ]` — its
                // constructor and length, then the elements laid out exactly as
                // an array's. Without this it fell through to the generic object
                // arm and printed the `{ length, byteLength, byteOffset,
                // BYTES_PER_ELEMENT }` bookkeeping instead of the CONTENTS,
                // which is the whole reason anyone logs one.
                Some(JsObj::Object(props))
                    if props.get("@@native").map(|t| self.str_of(t)).as_deref()
                        == Some("TypedArray") =>
                {
                    let kind = props
                        .get("@@kind")
                        .map(|k| self.str_of(k))
                        .unwrap_or_else(|| "TypedArray".into());
                    let elems: Vec<Value> = match props.get("@@elems").and_then(|e| self.get(e)) {
                        Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => items.clone(),
                        _ => Vec::new(),
                    };
                    let base = format!("{kind}({}) ", elems.len());
                    if indent > 2 * inspect_max_depth() {
                        return format!("[{kind}]");
                    }
                    let shown = elems.len().min(MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH);
                    let mut inner: Vec<String> = elems[..shown]
                        .iter()
                        .map(|x| self.inspect_lvl(x, indent + 2, st))
                        .collect();
                    let remaining = elems.len() - shown;
                    if remaining > 0 {
                        let unit = if remaining == 1 { "item" } else { "items" };
                        inner.push(format!("... {remaining} more {unit}"));
                    }
                    self.render_array(&inner, &elems, indent, false, remaining > 0, &base)
                }
                // A `Buffer` renders as `<Buffer 01 02 03>` — hex bytes, capped
                // at 50 with a `... N more byte(s)` tail, exactly as
                // `util.inspect` does. Without this a `console.log(buf)` (the
                // single most common thing anyone does with a Buffer) printed
                // the internal `{ length, byteLength, … }` bookkeeping.
                Some(JsObj::Object(props))
                    if props.get("@@native").map(|t| self.str_of(t)).as_deref()
                        == Some("Buffer") =>
                {
                    let bytes: Vec<u8> = match props.get("@@bytes").and_then(|b| self.get(b)) {
                        Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => {
                            items.iter().map(|x| self.to_number(x) as u8).collect()
                        }
                        _ => Vec::new(),
                    };
                    const MAX: usize = 50;
                    let shown: Vec<String> =
                        bytes.iter().take(MAX).map(|b| format!("{b:02x}")).collect();
                    let mut out = format!("<Buffer {}", shown.join(" "));
                    if bytes.len() > MAX {
                        let more = bytes.len() - MAX;
                        let unit = if more == 1 { "byte" } else { "bytes" };
                        out.push_str(&format!(" ... {more} more {unit}"));
                    }
                    out.push('>');
                    out
                }
                // An Error inspects as its `.stack` — never as an object literal
                // exposing the internal `message`/`stack` slots. Any own property
                // a script added beyond those follows in braces, as V8 renders
                // it: `Error: x\n    at … { code: 'C' }`.
                Some(JsObj::Object(_)) if self.error_to_string(v).is_some() => {
                    let stack = lookup_chain(self, v, "stack")
                        .map(|s| self.str_of(&s))
                        .unwrap_or_else(|| self.error_to_string(v).unwrap_or_default());
                    let extra: Vec<String> = self
                        .own_enum_key_names(v)
                        .into_iter()
                        .filter(|k| k != "name")
                        .map(|k| {
                            let val = self.fn_prop(v, &k).unwrap_or_else(|| match self.get(v) {
                                Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => {
                                    p.get(&k).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Undef)
                                }
                                _ => Value::Undef,
                            });
                            format!(
                                "{}: {}",
                                fmt_key(&k),
                                self.inspect_lvl(&val, indent + 2, st)
                            )
                        })
                        .collect();
                    if extra.is_empty() {
                        stack
                    } else {
                        format!("{stack} {{ {} }}", extra.join(", "))
                    }
                }
                Some(JsObj::Object(props)) => {
                    // Instances print with their constructor name as a prefix
                    // (`C { x: 1 }`); plain objects have none; a null-prototype
                    // object (e.g. an `Object.groupBy` result) is tagged
                    // `[Object: null prototype]`.
                    let ctor = match self.ctor_name(v) {
                        n if n.is_empty() => "Object".to_string(),
                        n => n,
                    };
                    let plain_prefix = if ctor == "Object" {
                        String::new()
                    } else {
                        format!("{ctor} ")
                    };
                    let prefix = if self.has_null_proto(v) {
                        "[Object: null prototype] ".to_string()
                    } else {
                        // An inherited `Symbol.toStringTag` shows as `Ctor [Tag] `.
                        match self.inspect_tag(v) {
                            Some(t) if t != ctor => format!("{ctor} [{t}] "),
                            _ => plain_prefix.clone(),
                        }
                    };
                    // Skip node-js's internal slots (`@@native`, `@@bytes`, …) and
                    // private class fields; a real symbol-keyed own property is a
                    // visible one and renders as `Symbol(desc): value`.
                    // An own ACCESSOR has no value to print: node shows the
                    // label `[Getter]` / `[Setter]` / `[Getter/Setter]` in its
                    // place. It is found through the `@@ord:` marker the
                    // property map holds for it, which is also what puts it in
                    // declaration order among the data properties. Without this
                    // an accessor rendered as nothing at all — `{ get z(){} }`
                    // printed `{}`.
                    let mut shown: Vec<(String, Result<&Value, &'static str>)> = props
                        .iter()
                        .filter_map(|(k, val)| match k.strip_prefix(ORD_MARKER) {
                            Some(real) => {
                                let attrs = self.prop_attrs(v, real);
                                let label = match self.own_accessor(v, real)? {
                                    (Some(_), Some(_)) => "[Getter/Setter]",
                                    (Some(_), None) => "[Getter]",
                                    (None, Some(_)) => "[Setter]",
                                    (None, None) => return None,
                                };
                                attrs.enumerable.then(|| (fmt_key(real), Err(label)))
                            }
                            // Only an ENUMERABLE own property is shown, as node
                            // does: a native instance keeps bookkeeping (a
                            // `URLSearchParams`'s `size`) as a hidden own slot,
                            // and printing it would report a spec getter as data.
                            None if !k.starts_with("@@")
                                && !k.starts_with('#')
                                && self.prop_attrs(v, k).enumerable =>
                            {
                                Some((fmt_key(k), Ok(val)))
                            }
                            None => None,
                        })
                        .collect();
                    shown.extend(props.iter().filter_map(|(k, val)| {
                        let sym = self.symbol_of_key(k)?;
                        self.prop_attrs(v, k)
                            .enumerable
                            .then(|| (self.inspect(&sym), Ok(val)))
                    }));
                    if shown.is_empty() {
                        return format!("{prefix}{{}}");
                    }
                    // Depth limit (Node default 2): deeper objects collapse to
                    // `[Object]` (or `[ClassName]` for a named instance).
                    if indent > 2 * inspect_max_depth() {
                        return if self.has_null_proto(v) {
                            // Already bracketed (`[Object: null prototype]`).
                            prefix.trim_end().to_string()
                        } else if plain_prefix.is_empty() {
                            "[Object]".into()
                        } else {
                            format!("[{}]", plain_prefix.trim_end())
                        };
                    }
                    let inner: Vec<String> = shown
                        .iter()
                        .map(|(k, val)| match val {
                            Ok(val) => format!("{k}: {}", self.inspect_lvl(val, indent + 2, st)),
                            Err(label) => format!("{k}: {label}"),
                        })
                        .collect();
                    self.render_object(&inner, &prefix, indent)
                }
                Some(JsObj::Symbol { desc, .. }) => match desc {
                    Some(d) => format!("Symbol({d})"),
                    None => "Symbol()".into(),
                },
                Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => {
                    let base = if c.parent.is_some() {
                        let pname = c
                            .parent
                            .as_ref()
                            .map(|p| self.callable_name(p))
                            .unwrap_or_default();
                        format!("[class {} extends {}]", c.name, pname)
                    } else {
                        format!("[class {}]", c.name)
                    };
                    self.with_callable_props(v, base, indent, st)
                }
                // A Map/Set renders its members at the NEXT nesting level, and
                // collapses to `[Map]`/`[Set]` past the depth limit exactly as an
                // array collapses to `[Array]`. Both used to recurse through
                // `inspect`, which restarts at indent 0, so the depth gate never
                // fired: nesting printed one level too deep at every depth
                // (measured on node v26.7.0, four nested Maps print
                // `Map(1) { 'a' => Map(1) { 'b' => Map(1) { 'c' => [Map] } } }`),
                // and a SELF-referential Map or Set recursed forever and aborted
                // the process — `const m=new Map(); m.set('m',m); console.log(m)`
                // died with `fatal runtime error: stack overflow`, which no
                // `try`/`catch` can see. An empty one still prints in full at any
                // depth, as `[]`/`{}` do.
                // A WEAK collection never shows its contents: node prints
                // `WeakMap { <items unknown> }` whether it holds anything or
                // not, because the entries are not enumerable by design.
                Some(JsObj::Map { weak: true, .. }) => "WeakMap { <items unknown> }".into(),
                Some(JsObj::Set { weak: true, .. }) => "WeakSet { <items unknown> }".into(),
                Some(JsObj::Map { entries, .. }) => {
                    if entries.is_empty() {
                        return "Map(0) {}".into();
                    }
                    if indent > 2 * inspect_max_depth() {
                        return "[Map]".into();
                    }
                    let inner: Vec<String> = entries
                        .values()
                        .map(|(k, val)| {
                            // Sequenced, not nested in one `format!`: both arms
                            // need the same `&mut` cycle state.
                            let ks = self.inspect_lvl(k, indent + 2, st);
                            let vs = self.inspect_lvl(val, indent + 2, st);
                            format!("{ks} => {vs}")
                        })
                        .collect();
                    format!("Map({}) {{ {} }}", entries.len(), inner.join(", "))
                }
                Some(JsObj::Set { entries, .. }) => {
                    if entries.is_empty() {
                        return "Set(0) {}".into();
                    }
                    if indent > 2 * inspect_max_depth() {
                        return "[Set]".into();
                    }
                    let inner: Vec<String> = entries
                        .values()
                        .map(|v| self.inspect_lvl(v, indent + 2, st))
                        .collect();
                    format!("Set({}) {{ {} }}", entries.len(), inner.join(", "))
                }
                Some(JsObj::Generator { .. }) => "Object [Generator] {}".into(),
                Some(JsObj::Promise { id }) => match self.promises.get(*id as usize) {
                    Some(c) => match c.state {
                        PromiseState::Pending => "Promise { <pending> }".into(),
                        PromiseState::Fulfilled => {
                            format!("Promise {{ {} }}", self.inspect_lvl(&c.value, 0, st))
                        }
                        PromiseState::Rejected => {
                            format!(
                                "Promise {{ <rejected> {} }}",
                                self.inspect_lvl(&c.value, 0, st)
                            )
                        }
                    },
                    None => "Promise { <pending> }".into(),
                },
                Some(JsObj::Func(_)) => {
                    // `callable_name`, not the FuncDef name: an anonymous
                    // function expression gets its name by inference from the
                    // binding it initialises (`const f = function(){}`), and
                    // that lands as an own `name` property.
                    let name = self.callable_name(v);
                    let base = if name.is_empty() {
                        "[Function (anonymous)]".to_string()
                    } else {
                        format!("[Function: {name}]")
                    };
                    self.with_callable_props(v, base, indent, st)
                }
                Some(JsObj::Builtin(n)) => {
                    let short = n.rsplit('.').next().unwrap_or(n);
                    format!("[Function: {short}]")
                }
                Some(JsObj::BoundMethod { .. }) => "[Function (anonymous)]".into(),
                Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { target, .. }) => {
                    let n = self.callable_name(target);
                    if n.is_empty() {
                        "[Function: bound ]".into()
                    } else {
                        format!("[Function: bound {n}]")
                    }
                }
                _ => "undefined".into(),
            },
            _ => "undefined".into(),
        }
    }

    /// Append a callable's own enumerable properties to its `[Function: f]` /
    /// `[class C]` base, the way `util.inspect` does: `[Function: f] { a: 1 }`.
    /// A callable with none renders as the bare base.
    fn with_callable_props(
        &self,
        v: &Value,
        base: String,
        indent: usize,
        st: &mut InspectCycles,
    ) -> String {
        let mut inner: Vec<String> = self
            .own_enum_key_names(v)
            .into_iter()
            .map(|k| {
                let val = self.fn_prop(v, &k).unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
                format!(
                    "{}: {}",
                    fmt_key(&k),
                    self.inspect_lvl(&val, indent + 2, st)
                )
            })
            .collect();
        for (k, val) in self.own_symbol_entries(v) {
            if let Some(sym) = self.symbol_of_key(&k) {
                inner.push(format!(
                    "{}: {}",
                    self.inspect(&sym),
                    self.inspect_lvl(&val, indent + 2, st)
                ));
            }
        }
        if inner.is_empty() {
            return base;
        }
        self.render_object(&inner, &format!("{base} "), indent)
    }

    /// Render a non-empty array's already-formatted element strings, applying
    /// Node's `util.inspect` layout: a single line when it fits, else a multi-line
    /// grid via `groupArrayElements` (for >6 entries), else one element per line.
    /// `values` is the raw element list (drives numeric right-alignment); `indent`
    /// is the array's own indentation level.
    fn render_array(
        &self,
        output: &[String],
        values: &[Value],
        indent: usize,
        has_props: bool,
        // `output`'s last entry is the `... N more items` tail rather than a
        // real element, so the grid must not size a column to it.
        has_tail: bool,
        // A constructor tag printed before the brackets, with a trailing space
        // (`"Uint8Array(3) "`), or empty for a plain array.
        base: &str,
    ) -> String {
        // Group array elements together if the array has more than six entries.
        // Arrays carrying extra own props (`index`/`input`/… on a match result)
        // are never grid-grouped — Node lays those out plainly.
        let entries = output.len();
        let (lines, grouped) = if entries > 6 && !has_props {
            group_array_elements(self, output, values, indent, has_tail)
        } else {
            (output.to_vec(), false)
        };
        // A typed array prints its constructor and length ahead of the brackets
        // (`Uint8Array(3) [ 1, 2, 3 ]`); node counts that as `base` in the
        // break-length seed, so a long tag wraps the list one entry sooner.
        if output.is_empty() {
            return format!("{base}[]");
        }
        // If no grouping happened, try to line everything up on a single line.
        if !grouped {
            // start = output.length + indentationLvl + braces[0].len(1) + base + 10
            let start = output.len() + indent + 1 + base.chars().count() + 10;
            if is_below_break_length(output, start) {
                return format!("{base}[ {} ]", output.join(", "));
            }
        }
        // Otherwise: one (grouped or single) entry per line, indented by indent+2.
        let pad = " ".repeat(indent);
        let sep = format!(",\n{pad}  ");
        format!("{base}[\n{pad}  {}\n{pad}]", lines.join(&sep))
    }

    /// Render a non-empty object's already-formatted `key: value` strings with
    /// Node's `util.inspect` layout: a single line when it fits `breakLength`,
    /// else one property per line indented by `indent + 2`. `prefix` is the
    /// constructor/`[Object: null prototype]` tag (with trailing space) or empty.
    /// Mirrors `render_array`'s break decision. (Node's `compact` depth gate is a
    /// no-op at `console.log`'s default depth of 2, so only length matters here.)
    fn render_object(&self, output: &[String], prefix: &str, indent: usize) -> String {
        // start = output.length + indentationLvl + braces[0].len + base(0) + 10.
        // For a tagged object Node folds the tag into `braces[0]` (e.g.
        // `"Point {"`, `"[Object: null prototype] {"`), so its length is the
        // prefix (which carries the trailing space) plus the `{`.
        let braces0 = prefix.chars().count() + 1;
        let start = output.len() + indent + braces0 + 10;
        if is_below_break_length(output, start) {
            return format!("{prefix}{{ {} }}", output.join(", "));
        }
        let pad = " ".repeat(indent);
        let sep = format!(",\n{pad}  ");
        format!("{prefix}{{\n{pad}  {}\n{pad}}}", output.join(&sep))
    }

    /// The `.name` of any callable (function/class/builtin/bound).
    pub fn callable_name(&self, v: &Value) -> String {
        // A user-set `.name` own property wins.
        if let Some(n) = self.fn_prop(v, "name") {
            return self.str_of(&n);
        }
        match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Func(f)) => self
                .funcs
                .get(f.def_id)
                .map(|d| d.name.clone())
                .unwrap_or_default(),
            Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => c.name.clone(),
            Some(JsObj::Builtin(n)) => n.rsplit('.').next().unwrap_or(n).to_string(),
            Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { target, .. }) => {
                format!("bound {}", self.callable_name(target))
            }
            _ => String::new(),
        }
    }

    // ── equality / comparison / arithmetic (numeric-hook + builtin paths) ──

    /// Strict equality (`===`): same type and same value, no coercion.
    pub fn strict_eq(&self, a: &Value, b: &Value) -> bool {
        match (a, b) {
            (Value::Undef, Value::Undef) => true,
            (Value::Bool(x), Value::Bool(y)) => x == y,
            (Value::Str(x), Value::Str(y)) => x == y,
            _ => {
                // Numbers (NaN !== NaN, +0 === -0).
                let an = matches!(a, Value::Int(_) | Value::Float(_));
                let bn = matches!(b, Value::Int(_) | Value::Float(_));
                if an && bn {
                    let x = self.to_number(a);
                    let y = self.to_number(b);
                    return x == y;
                }
                // BigInt === BigInt compares by value (each literal is a distinct
                // heap cell, so reference identity would be wrong). BigInt is never
                // `===` a Number (different types).
                if let (Some(x), Some(y)) = (self.as_bigint(a), self.as_bigint(b)) {
                    return x == y;
                }
                // Heap values.
                if let (Some(sa), Some(sb)) = (self.as_str(a), self.as_str(b)) {
                    return sa == sb;
                }
                let na = self.is_null(a);
                let nb = self.is_null(b);
                if na || nb {
                    return na && nb;
                }
                // A builtin namespace/constructor/prototype is a SINGLETON in JS
                // (`Math === Math`, `Array.prototype === Array.prototype`), but
                // every bare reference here allocates a fresh handle, so compare
                // those by name rather than by heap index.
                if let (Some(JsObj::Builtin(x)), Some(JsObj::Builtin(y))) =
                    (self.get(a), self.get(b))
                {
                    return x == y;
                }
                // Reference identity for arrays/objects/functions.
                matches!((a, b), (Value::Obj(x), Value::Obj(y)) if x == y)
            }
        }
    }

    /// Whether `v` is `null` or `undefined`.
    pub fn is_nullish(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        matches!(v, Value::Undef) || self.is_null(v)
    }

    /// The ECMAScript "loose type" of `v` for the `==` algorithm: `"number"`,
    /// `"string"` (primitive or heap string), `"boolean"`, `"undefined"`,
    /// `"null"`, or `"object"` (array / plain object / function).
    fn js_type(&self, v: &Value) -> &'static str {
        match v {
            Value::Undef => "undefined",
            Value::Bool(_) => "boolean",
            Value::Int(_) | Value::Float(_) => "number",
            Value::Str(_) => "string",
            Value::Obj(_) => match self.get(v) {
                Some(JsObj::Str(_)) => "string",
                Some(JsObj::Null) => "null",
                Some(JsObj::BigInt(_)) => "bigint",
                _ => "object",
            },
            _ => "object",
        }
    }

    /// Loose equality (`==`) following the ECMAScript Abstract Equality Comparison.
    /// Objects reduce via `ToPrimitive` (which for our heap objects is always their
    /// string `toString`), so `[0] == "0"` is `true` (string compare of `"0"`) but
    /// `[0] == ""` is `false` — never a number coercion of the object.
    pub fn loose_eq(&self, a: &Value, b: &Value) -> bool {
        // Same type: identical to `===` (number==number, string==string, etc.).
        if self.strict_eq(a, b) {
            return true;
        }
        let ta = self.js_type(a);
        let tb = self.js_type(b);
        // null and undefined are loosely equal only to each other.
        if self.is_nullish(a) || self.is_nullish(b) {
            return self.is_nullish(a) && self.is_nullish(b);
        }
        // BigInt ⇄ (Number | String | Boolean | Object): compare mathematical
        // values (both-BigInt was already settled by the `strict_eq` above).
        if ta == "bigint" || tb == "bigint" {
            return self.bigint_loose_eq(a, b);
        }
        if ta == tb {
            // Same type but not strict-equal (and not nullish) ⇒ not equal.
            return false;
        }
        // number ⇄ string: compare as numbers.
        if (ta == "number" && tb == "string") || (ta == "string" && tb == "number") {
            return self.to_number(a) == self.to_number(b);
        }
        // boolean side coerces to number, then recompares.
        if ta == "boolean" {
            return self.loose_eq(&Value::Float(self.to_number(a)), b);
        }
        if tb == "boolean" {
            return self.loose_eq(a, &Value::Float(self.to_number(b)));
        }
        // object ⇄ (number|string): ToPrimitive the object (→ its string form),
        // then recompare as string==string or number==string.
        if ta == "object" && (tb == "number" || tb == "string") {
            let pa = self.str_of(a);
            return if tb == "string" {
                pa == self.str_of(b)
            } else {
                str_to_number(&pa) == self.to_number(b)
            };
        }
        if tb == "object" && (ta == "number" || ta == "string") {
            let pb = self.str_of(b);
            return if ta == "string" {
                self.str_of(a) == pb
            } else {
                self.to_number(a) == str_to_number(&pb)
            };
        }
        false
    }

    /// The numeric-hook arithmetic/relational fallback for non-native operands
    /// (called by fusevm when at least one operand isn't `Int`/`Float`).
    pub fn arith(&mut self, op: NumOp, a: &Value, b: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
        use NumOp::*;
        match op {
            Add => {
                // `+`: if either operand is a string, concatenate string forms;
                // otherwise numeric addition.
                let a_str = self.prefers_string(a);
                let b_str = self.prefers_string(b);
                if a_str || b_str {
                    // String concatenation wins even with a bigint operand
                    // (`1n + "x"` → `"1x"`).
                    let s = format!("{}{}", self.str_of(a), self.str_of(b));
                    Ok(self.new_str(s))
                } else if self.is_bigint_val(a) || self.is_bigint_val(b) {
                    self.bigint_arith(op, a, b)
                } else {
                    Ok(Value::Float(self.to_number(a) + self.to_number(b)))
                }
            }
            Sub | Mul | Div | Mod | Pow if self.is_bigint_val(a) || self.is_bigint_val(b) => {
                self.bigint_arith(op, a, b)
            }
            Sub => Ok(Value::Float(self.to_number(a) - self.to_number(b))),
            Mul => Ok(Value::Float(self.to_number(a) * self.to_number(b))),
            Div => Ok(Value::Float(self.to_number(a) / self.to_number(b))),
            Mod => Ok(Value::Float(js_mod(self.to_number(a), self.to_number(b)))),
            Pow => Ok(Value::Float(crate::builtins::js_pow(
                self.to_number(a),
                self.to_number(b),
            ))),
            Neg if self.is_bigint_val(a) => self.bigint_arith(op, a, b),
            Neg => Ok(Value::Float(-self.to_number(a))),
            Lt | Le | Gt | Ge => Ok(Value::Bool(self.relational(op, a, b))),
            Eq => Ok(Value::Bool(self.loose_eq(a, b))),
            Ne => Ok(Value::Bool(!self.loose_eq(a, b))),
        }
    }

    /// Whether `v`'s primitive (`ToPrimitive` with the default hint) is a string,
    /// which drives `+` toward concatenation. Primitive strings qualify, and so
    /// do heap objects whose default `ToPrimitive` is their (string) `toString`:
    /// arrays (`[1,2,3]+3 → "1,2,33"`), plain objects (`{}+[] → "[object Object]"`),
    /// and functions. `null`/`undefined`/`boolean`/`number` do not.
    fn prefers_string(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        match v {
            Value::Str(_) => true,
            // A BigInt's `ToPrimitive` is the bigint itself (numeric), NOT a string,
            // so `1n + 2n` is bigint addition, not concatenation. `null` has no
            // string primitive either.
            Value::Obj(_) => !matches!(
                self.get(v),
                Some(JsObj::Null) | Some(JsObj::BigInt(_)) | None
            ),
            _ => false,
        }
    }

    /// Relational comparison (`< <= > >=`) with JS coercion: string/string is
    /// lexicographic, otherwise numeric (NaN yields false).
    fn relational(&self, op: NumOp, a: &Value, b: &Value) -> bool {
        use std::cmp::Ordering;
        let ord = if let (Some(x), Some(y)) = (self.as_bigint(a), self.as_bigint(b)) {
            // BigInt < BigInt: exact (no f64 precision loss for large magnitudes).
            x.cmp(&y)
        } else if let (Some(x), Some(y)) = (self.as_str(a), self.as_str(b)) {
            // 7.2.13 IsLessThan compares CODE UNITS, which is not Rust's `str`
            // order once an astral character meets a BMP one — see `utf16`.
            crate::utf16::cmp_units(&x, &y)
        } else {
            let x = self.to_number(a);
            let y = self.to_number(b);
            match x.partial_cmp(&y) {
                Some(o) => o,
                None => return false, // NaN operand
            }
        };
        match op {
            NumOp::Lt => ord == Ordering::Less,
            NumOp::Le => ord != Ordering::Greater,
            NumOp::Gt => ord == Ordering::Greater,
            NumOp::Ge => ord != Ordering::Less,
            _ => false,
        }
    }

    /// Bitwise/shift ops with JS ToInt32/ToUint32 semantics — or true
    /// arbitrary-width BigInt bitwise when both operands are BigInt (mixing a
    /// BigInt with a Number throws, matching Node).
    pub fn bitwise(&mut self, tag: i64, a: &Value, b: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
        if self.is_bigint_val(a) || self.is_bigint_val(b) {
            return self.bigint_bitwise(tag, a, b);
        }
        let x = to_int32(self.to_number(a));
        let y = to_int32(self.to_number(b));
        let r: i64 = match tag {
            binop::BITAND => (x & y) as i64,
            binop::BITOR => (x | y) as i64,
            binop::BITXOR => (x ^ y) as i64,
            binop::SHL => (x.wrapping_shl((y as u32) & 31)) as i64,
            binop::SHR => (x >> ((y as u32) & 31)) as i64,
            binop::USHR => (to_uint32(self.to_number(a)) >> ((y as u32) & 31)) as i64,
            _ => 0,
        };
        Ok(Value::Float(r as f64))
    }

    // ── BigInt operations ────────────────────────────────────────────────────
    /// Whether `v` is a heap `BigInt`.
    pub fn is_bigint_val(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        matches!(self.get(v), Some(JsObj::BigInt(_)))
    }
    /// The `BigInt` value of `v` (a heap bigint), else `None`.
    pub fn as_bigint(&self, v: &Value) -> Option<num_bigint::BigInt> {
        match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::BigInt(b)) => Some(b.clone()),
            _ => None,
        }
    }
    /// Allocate a heap `BigInt`.
    pub fn new_bigint(&mut self, b: num_bigint::BigInt) -> Value {
        self.alloc(JsObj::BigInt(b))
    }

    /// BigInt arithmetic (`+ - * / % **`, unary `-`). Requires BOTH operands to be
    /// BigInt for a binary op; mixing a BigInt with a Number throws the exact Node
    /// `TypeError` (a string operand is handled as concatenation before we get
    /// here). Division/`%` truncate toward zero; `**` needs a non-negative
    /// exponent.
    fn bigint_arith(&mut self, op: NumOp, a: &Value, b: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
        use num_traits::{Signed, Zero};
        use NumOp::*;
        if op == Neg {
            let x = self.as_bigint(a).expect("bigint_arith Neg on non-bigint");
            return Ok(self.new_bigint(-x));
        }
        let (x, y) = match (self.as_bigint(a), self.as_bigint(b)) {
            (Some(x), Some(y)) => (x, y),
            // Exactly one side is a BigInt → the other is a Number/Boolean: illegal.
            _ => {
                return Err(type_error(
                    "Cannot mix BigInt and other types, use explicit conversions",
                ))
            }
        };
        let r = match op {
            Add => x + y,
            Sub => x - y,
            Mul => x * y,
            Div => {
                if y.is_zero() {
                    return Err("RangeError: Division by zero".into());
                }
                x / y // truncates toward zero (matches JS BigInt division)
            }
            Mod => {
                if y.is_zero() {
                    return Err("RangeError: Division by zero".into());
                }
                x % y // sign follows the dividend (truncated), like JS
            }
            Pow => {
                if y.is_negative() {
                    return Err("RangeError: Exponent must be positive".into());
                }
                let exp = num_traits::ToPrimitive::to_u32(&y)
                    .ok_or_else(|| "RangeError: Maximum BigInt size exceeded".to_string())?;
                num_traits::Pow::pow(x, exp)
            }
            _ => return Err(type_error("unsupported BigInt operation")),
        };
        Ok(self.new_bigint(r))
    }

    /// BigInt bitwise (`& | ^ << >>`); `>>>` has no BigInt form. Both operands must
    /// be BigInt (mixing throws).
    fn bigint_bitwise(&mut self, tag: i64, a: &Value, b: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
        let (x, y) = match (self.as_bigint(a), self.as_bigint(b)) {
            (Some(x), Some(y)) => (x, y),
            _ => {
                return Err(type_error(
                    "Cannot mix BigInt and other types, use explicit conversions",
                ))
            }
        };
        let r = match tag {
            binop::BITAND => x & y,
            binop::BITOR => x | y,
            binop::BITXOR => x ^ y,
            binop::SHL => {
                let n = num_traits::ToPrimitive::to_i64(&y).unwrap_or(0);
                if n >= 0 {
                    x << (n as usize)
                } else {
                    x >> ((-n) as usize)
                }
            }
            binop::SHR => {
                let n = num_traits::ToPrimitive::to_i64(&y).unwrap_or(0);
                if n >= 0 {
                    x >> (n as usize)
                } else {
                    x << ((-n) as usize)
                }
            }
            binop::USHR => {
                return Err(type_error(
                    "BigInts have no unsigned right shift, use >> instead",
                ))
            }
            _ => return Err(type_error("unsupported BigInt operation")),
        };
        Ok(self.new_bigint(r))
    }

    /// BigInt ⇄ (Number | Boolean | String | Object) loose equality (`==`). Both
    /// being BigInt was already handled by `strict_eq`.
    fn bigint_loose_eq(&self, a: &Value, b: &Value) -> bool {
        // Order so `big` is the BigInt side and `other` the counterpart.
        let (big, other) = match (self.as_bigint(a), self.as_bigint(b)) {
            (Some(x), _) => (x, b),
            (_, Some(y)) => (y, a),
            _ => return false,
        };
        match other {
            Value::Bool(bo) => big == num_bigint::BigInt::from(*bo as i64),
            Value::Int(n) => big == num_bigint::BigInt::from(*n),
            Value::Float(f) => {
                // Equal only when the float is an integer with the same value.
                if !f.is_finite() || f.fract() != 0.0 {
                    return false;
                }
                bigint_to_f64(&big) == *f
            }
            Value::Str(s) => match parse_bigint_str(s) {
                Some(bs) => big == bs,
                None => false,
            },
            Value::Obj(_) => match self.get(other) {
                // A heap string parses like a primitive string.
                Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => parse_bigint_str(s).map(|bs| big == bs).unwrap_or(false),
                _ => {
                    // Other objects reduce via ToPrimitive (their string form).
                    let s = self.str_of(other);
                    parse_bigint_str(&s).map(|bs| big == bs).unwrap_or(false)
                }
            },
            _ => false,
        }
    }
}

/// Parse a string to a BigInt under JS `StringToBigInt` rules: trimmed, empty →
/// `0n`, decimal or `0x`/`0o`/`0b` prefixed; any junk → `None`.
pub fn parse_bigint_str(s: &str) -> Option<num_bigint::BigInt> {
    let t = crate::utf16::js_trim(s);
    if t.is_empty() {
        return Some(num_bigint::BigInt::from(0));
    }
    let (radix, digits) = if let Some(h) = t.strip_prefix("0x").or_else(|| t.strip_prefix("0X")) {
        (16, h)
    } else if let Some(o) = t.strip_prefix("0o").or_else(|| t.strip_prefix("0O")) {
        (8, o)
    } else if let Some(bb) = t.strip_prefix("0b").or_else(|| t.strip_prefix("0B")) {
        (2, bb)
    } else {
        (10, t)
    };
    num_bigint::BigInt::parse_bytes(digits.as_bytes(), radix)
}

/// Coerce a BigInt to `f64` (for `Number(bigint)` and mixed relational compares);
/// out-of-range magnitudes become ±Infinity, matching Node.
fn bigint_to_f64(b: &num_bigint::BigInt) -> f64 {
    num_traits::ToPrimitive::to_f64(b).unwrap_or_else(|| {
        if num_traits::Signed::is_negative(b) {
            f64::NEG_INFINITY
        } else {
            f64::INFINITY
        }
    })
}

/// JS `%` remainder (sign follows the dividend; matches `f64::rem`).
fn js_mod(a: f64, b: f64) -> f64 {
    a % b
}

/// Cycle bookkeeping for one `util.inspect` render.
///
/// `seen` is the chain of objects currently being rendered (an entry appearing
/// twice is a back-edge), and `refs` records every object a back-edge pointed
/// at, in first-encountered order — its position + 1 is the `*N` id Node prints
/// in `[Circular *N]` / `<ref *N>`.
#[derive(Default)]
struct InspectCycles {
    seen: Vec<Value>,
    refs: Vec<Value>,
}

impl InspectCycles {
    /// Record `v` as a cycle target (idempotent) and return its 1-based id.
    fn mark(&mut self, h: &JsHost, v: &Value) -> usize {
        if let Some(id) = self.id_of(h, v) {
            return id;
        }
        self.refs.push(v.clone());
        self.refs.len()
    }

    /// The `*N` id already assigned to `v`, if any.
    fn id_of(&self, h: &JsHost, v: &Value) -> Option<usize> {
        self.refs
            .iter()
            .position(|p| h.strict_eq(p, v))
            .map(|i| i + 1)
    }
}

thread_local! {
    /// The active `util.inspect` `depth` (nesting levels shown before collapsing
    /// to `[Object]`/`[Array]`). Node's default is 2; `util.inspect(v,{depth:N})`
    /// overrides it for one call, `console.log`/`util.format` use the default.
    static INSPECT_MAX_DEPTH: std::cell::Cell<usize> = const { std::cell::Cell::new(2) };
}

/// Set the `util.inspect` depth for the next render (restore to 2 after).
pub fn set_inspect_max_depth(d: usize) {
    INSPECT_MAX_DEPTH.with(|c| c.set(d));
}
fn inspect_max_depth() -> usize {
    INSPECT_MAX_DEPTH.with(|c| c.get())
}

/// ECMA-262 `ToInt32` (7.1.6): truncate toward zero, reduce modulo 2^32, then
/// reinterpret as signed.
///
/// The reduction has to happen in `f64`, not by casting through `i64`. Rust
/// saturates an out-of-range float-to-int cast, so `1e300 as i64` is `i64::MAX`
/// and `1e300 | 0` came out `-1` where every engine says `0`; the same
/// saturation made `1e300 >>> 0` report `4294967295`. `rem_euclid` on a
/// power-of-two modulus is exact for every finite double, so this is the whole
/// fix — and it is the form `Math.clz32` already used.
pub(crate) fn to_int32(f: f64) -> i32 {
    to_uint32(f) as i32
}
pub(crate) fn to_uint32(f: f64) -> u32 {
    if !f.is_finite() {
        return 0;
    }
    f.trunc().rem_euclid(4294967296.0) as u32
}

/// Parse a string in numeric context (`ToNumber`): trimmed, empty -> 0.
fn str_to_number(s: &str) -> f64 {
    let t = crate::utf16::js_trim(s);
    if t.is_empty() {
        return 0.0;
    }
    if let Some(hex) = t.strip_prefix("0x").or_else(|| t.strip_prefix("0X")) {
        return i64::from_str_radix(hex, 16)
            .map(|n| n as f64)
            .unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
    }
    if let Some(oct) = t.strip_prefix("0o").or_else(|| t.strip_prefix("0O")) {
        return i64::from_str_radix(oct, 8)
            .map(|n| n as f64)
            .unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
    }
    if let Some(bin) = t.strip_prefix("0b").or_else(|| t.strip_prefix("0B")) {
        return i64::from_str_radix(bin, 2)
            .map(|n| n as f64)
            .unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
    }
    match t {
        "Infinity" | "+Infinity" => f64::INFINITY,
        "-Infinity" => f64::NEG_INFINITY,
        _ => t.parse::<f64>().unwrap_or(f64::NAN),
    }
}

/// `util.inspect` break length (the width past which entries wrap). Node's default.
const BREAK_LENGTH: usize = 80;
/// Node's default `compact` setting (the `compact * 4` column cap term).
const COMPACT: usize = 3;
/// Node's default `maxArrayLength` — how many array elements `util.inspect`
/// formats before collapsing the rest into `... N more items`.
const MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH: usize = 100;

/// Whether `output` fits on a single line — a faithful port of Node's
/// `isBelowBreakLength` (no colors, no `base`). `start` is the caller's seed
/// length (braces + indentation + slack).
fn is_below_break_length(output: &[String], start: usize) -> bool {
    let mut total = output.len() + start;
    if total + output.len() > BREAK_LENGTH {
        return false;
    }
    for o in output {
        if o.contains('\n') {
            return false;
        }
        total += o.chars().count();
        if total > BREAK_LENGTH {
            return false;
        }
    }
    true
}

/// Faithful port of Node's `util.inspect` `groupArrayElements`: lay out the
/// already-formatted element strings into an aligned multi-column grid. Returns
/// `(lines, grouped)` — `grouped` is false when Node would leave the output
/// ungrouped (so the caller falls back to single-line / one-per-line).
fn group_array_elements(
    host: &JsHost,
    output: &[String],
    values: &[Value],
    indentation_lvl: usize,
    has_tail: bool,
) -> (Vec<String>, bool) {
    let separator_space = 2usize; // ", " between entries
                                  // A `... N more items` tail is not an element: node drops it from the grid
                                  // (`outputLength--`) so it neither widens a column nor occupies a cell, then
                                  // re-appends it as its own final line.
    let output_length = output.len() - usize::from(has_tail);
    let data_len: Vec<usize> = output.iter().map(|o| o.chars().count()).collect();
    let mut total_length = 0usize;
    let mut max_length = 0usize;
    for &len in &data_len[..output_length] {
        total_length += len + separator_space;
        if len > max_length {
            max_length = len;
        }
    }
    let actual_max = max_length + separator_space;
    // Only group when ≥3 entries fit across AND the entries aren't wildly uneven.
    if !(actual_max * 3 + indentation_lvl < BREAK_LENGTH
        && (total_length as f64 / actual_max as f64 > 5.0 || max_length <= 6))
    {
        return (output.to_vec(), false);
    }
    let approx_char_heights = 2.5f64;
    let average_bias = (actual_max as f64 - total_length as f64 / output_length as f64).sqrt();
    let biased_max = (actual_max as f64 - 3.0 - average_bias).max(1.0);
    // Ideally a square grid; capped by break length, compact*4, and 15 columns.
    let columns = [
        ((approx_char_heights * biased_max * output_length as f64).sqrt() / biased_max).round()
            as i64,
        ((BREAK_LENGTH - indentation_lvl) as f64 / actual_max as f64).floor() as i64,
        (COMPACT * 4) as i64,
        15,
    ]
    .into_iter()
    .min()
    .unwrap();
    if columns <= 1 {
        return (output.to_vec(), false);
    }
    let columns = columns as usize;
    // The widest entry (plus separator) in each column.
    let mut max_line_length = vec![0usize; columns];
    for (i, slot) in max_line_length.iter_mut().enumerate() {
        let mut line_length = 0;
        let mut j = i;
        while j < output_length {
            if data_len[j] > line_length {
                line_length = data_len[j];
            }
            j += columns;
        }
        *slot = line_length + separator_space;
    }
    // Right-align (padStart) only when every element is a number/bigint.
    let pad_start = values.iter().all(|v| {
        matches!(v, Value::Int(_) | Value::Float(_))
            || matches!(host.get(v), Some(JsObj::BigInt(_)))
    });
    let mut tmp = Vec::new();
    let mut i = 0;
    while i < output_length {
        let max = (i + columns).min(output_length);
        let mut str_line = String::new();
        let mut j = i;
        while j < max.saturating_sub(1) {
            // `output[j]` has no colors here, so padding == max_line_length[col].
            let col = j - i;
            let cell = format!("{}, ", output[j]);
            let target = max_line_length[col];
            str_line.push_str(&pad_to(&cell, target, pad_start));
            j += 1;
        }
        // The last cell of the row: right-aligned entries pad without the ", ".
        if pad_start {
            let col = j - i;
            let target = max_line_length[col] - separator_space;
            str_line.push_str(&pad_to(&output[j], target, true));
        } else {
            str_line.push_str(&output[j]);
        }
        tmp.push(str_line);
        i += columns;
    }
    if has_tail {
        tmp.push(output[output_length].clone());
    }
    (tmp, true)
}

/// Pad `s` to `width` chars: right-justified when `pad_start`, else left-justified.
/// (Padding is measured in chars; already ANSI-free here.)
fn pad_to(s: &str, width: usize, pad_start: bool) -> String {
    let len = s.chars().count();
    if len >= width {
        return s.to_string();
    }
    let fill = " ".repeat(width - len);
    if pad_start {
        format!("{fill}{s}")
    } else {
        format!("{s}{fill}")
    }
}

/// Quote a string the way `util.inspect` does — a port of `strEscape` in Node's
/// `lib/internal/util/inspect.js`.
///
/// The quote character is chosen so the contents need as little escaping as
/// possible: single quotes normally, double quotes when the string contains a
/// `'` but no `"`, and a backtick when it contains both (and neither a backtick
/// nor a `${`). Only the ACTIVE quote is backslash-escaped, alongside `\` and
/// the C0 controls + DEL, which use Node's `meta` table (`\n`, `\t`, `\b`,
/// `\f`, `\r` short forms; `\x0B`, `\x1F`, `\x7F` uppercase-hex otherwise).
fn quote_str(s: &str) -> String {
    let quote = if !s.contains('\'') {
        '\''
    } else if !s.contains('"') {
        '"'
    } else if !s.contains('`') && !s.contains("${") {
        '`'
    } else {
        '\''
    };
    let mut out = String::with_capacity(s.len() + 2);
    out.push(quote);
    for c in s.chars() {
        match c {
            _ if c == quote => {
                out.push('\\');
                out.push(c);
            }
            '\\' => out.push_str("\\\\"),
            '\u{8}' => out.push_str("\\b"),
            '\t' => out.push_str("\\t"),
            '\n' => out.push_str("\\n"),
            '\u{c}' => out.push_str("\\f"),
            '\r' => out.push_str("\\r"),
            '\u{0}'..='\u{1f}' | '\u{7f}' => out.push_str(&format!("\\x{:02X}", c as u32)),
            _ => out.push(c),
        }
    }
    out.push(quote);
    out
}

/// Render an object key: bare if it is a valid identifier, quoted otherwise.
fn fmt_key(k: &str) -> String {
    let ok = !k.is_empty()
        && k.chars()
            .next()
            .map(|c| c.is_ascii_alphabetic() || c == '_' || c == '$')
            .unwrap_or(false)
        && k.chars()
            .all(|c| c.is_ascii_alphanumeric() || c == '_' || c == '$');
    if ok {
        k.to_string()
    } else {
        quote_str(k)
    }
}

// ── iteration ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

impl JsHost {
    /// Collect an iterable into a vector of values (arrays, strings, Map/Set).
    /// Generators and user `Symbol.iterator` objects go through `iter_all`, which
    /// holds no host borrow across resumes.
    pub fn iter_vec(&mut self, v: &Value) -> Result<Vec<Value>, String> {
        match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => Ok(items.clone()),
            Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => {
                let chars: Vec<String> = s.chars().map(|c| c.to_string()).collect();
                Ok(chars.into_iter().map(|c| self.new_str(c)).collect())
            }
            Some(JsObj::Iter { items, idx }) => Ok(items[*idx..].to_vec()),
            Some(JsObj::Set { entries, .. }) => Ok(entries.values().cloned().collect()),
            Some(JsObj::Map { entries, .. }) => {
                // Map iterates as `[key, value]` pairs.
                let pairs: Vec<(Value, Value)> = entries.values().cloned().collect();
                Ok(pairs
                    .into_iter()
                    .map(|(k, v)| self.new_array(vec![k, v]))
                    .collect())
            }
            // A `Buffer` iterates over its BYTES and a typed array over its
            // ELEMENTS — both are iterable in Node. Only `@@bytes` was handled
            // here, so `[...buf]` worked while `[...new Uint8Array([1])]` threw
            // "object is not iterable", which is the same invariant holding at
            // one of its two sites.
            Some(JsObj::Object(props))
                if props.contains_key("@@bytes") || props.contains_key("@@elems") =>
            {
                let field = if props.contains_key("@@bytes") {
                    "@@bytes"
                } else {
                    "@@elems"
                };
                match props
                    .get(field)
                    .cloned()
                    .and_then(|b| self.get(&b).cloned())
                {
                    Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => Ok(items),
                    _ => Ok(Vec::new()),
                }
            }
            // V8 names the VALUE, not its type: `[...5]` is `5 is not iterable`,
            // `[...{}]` is `{} is not iterable`. Reporting `typeof` instead
            // produced `number is not iterable`, which no engine emits.
            _ => {
                let shown = self.inspect(v);
                Err(type_error(&format!("{shown} is not iterable")))
            }
        }
    }

    /// Enumerable string keys of an object/array (for `for-in`). Internal
    /// symbol-keyed props (`@@…`) are not enumerable.
    /// `for-in` visits own enumerable keys, then every *inherited* enumerable key
    /// not already seen, walking the whole prototype chain. Class methods and the
    /// builtin prototypes are non-enumerable, so in practice this only surfaces
    /// keys a script put on a prototype itself (`F.prototype.y = 2`) — but that
    /// is exactly the constructor-function idiom older packages are written in.
    pub fn enum_keys(&mut self, v: &Value) -> Vec<Value> {
        let mut keys = self.own_enum_key_names(v);
        let mut cur = self.proto_of(v);
        let mut hops = 0;
        while let Some(p) = cur {
            // A cyclic or pathologically deep chain must not hang the loop.
            hops += 1;
            if hops > 100 || matches!(p, Value::Undef) || self.is_null(&p) {
                break;
            }
            for k in self.own_enum_key_names(&p) {
                if !keys.contains(&k) {
                    keys.push(k);
                }
            }
            cur = self.proto_of(&p);
        }
        keys.into_iter().map(|k| self.new_str(k)).collect()
    }

    /// The own *enumerable* string keys of `v`, in property order — the single
    /// source of truth behind `for-in`, `Object.keys`/`values`/`entries`,
    /// object spread, `Object.assign` and `JSON.stringify`. Internal slots
    /// (`@@…`), private fields (`#…`) and anything marked non-enumerable via
    /// `prop_attrs` are excluded.
    pub fn own_enum_key_names(&self, v: &Value) -> Vec<String> {
        self.own_key_names(v, true)
    }

    /// Own string keys of `v` in insertion order. `enum_only` drops the
    /// non-enumerable ones (`Object.keys`); otherwise every own key is reported
    /// (`getOwnPropertyNames`/`Reflect.ownKeys`).
    pub fn own_key_names(&self, v: &Value, enum_only: bool) -> Vec<String> {
        let mut keys = self.own_enum_data_keys(v, enum_only);
        // An accessor defined before its object had any ordering marker (a class
        // prototype accessor, say) still has to appear.
        for k in self.own_accessor_keys(v) {
            if (!enum_only || self.prop_attrs(v, &k).enumerable) && !keys.contains(&k) {
                keys.push(k);
            }
        }
        keys
    }

    /// The keys that own a slot in the object's property map, in insertion
    /// order, resolving accessor ordering markers back to their real key.
    fn own_enum_data_keys(&self, v: &Value, enum_only: bool) -> Vec<String> {
        match self.get(v) {
            // A `Buffer` is an index-keyed exotic: its own enumerable keys are
            // `"0".."len-1"` (the bytes live in the hidden `@@bytes` slot), never
            // the `length`/`byteLength` view metadata, which V8 keeps on the
            // prototype chain or as non-enumerable own slots.
            // A `Buffer` and every other typed array are index-keyed exotics:
            // their own enumerable keys are `"0".."len-1"` (the elements live in
            // a hidden slot), never the `length`/`byteLength` view metadata,
            // which V8 keeps on the prototype chain or as non-enumerable own
            // slots. Only `Buffer` had this arm, so `Object.keys(u8)` was empty
            // and `JSON.stringify(u8)` was `{}` where node gives
            // `{"0":10,"1":9}` — `hasOwnProperty(0)` already answered true, so
            // the two views of the same question disagreed.
            Some(JsObj::Object(props))
                if matches!(
                    props.get("@@native").map(|t| self.str_of(t)).as_deref(),
                    Some("Buffer") | Some("TypedArray")
                ) =>
            {
                let field = match props.get("@@native").map(|t| self.str_of(t)).as_deref() {
                    Some("Buffer") => "@@bytes",
                    _ => "@@elems",
                };
                let n = match props.get(field).and_then(|b| self.get(b)) {
                    Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => items.len(),
                    _ => 0,
                };
                (0..n).map(|i| i.to_string()).collect()
            }
            Some(JsObj::Object(props)) => props
                .keys()
                .filter_map(|k| match k.strip_prefix(ORD_MARKER) {
                    Some(real) => Some(real.to_string()),
                    None if !k.starts_with("@@") && !k.starts_with('#') => Some(k.clone()),
                    None => None,
                })
                .filter(|k| !enum_only || self.prop_attrs(v, k).enumerable)
                .collect(),
            // `OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys` on an array exotic: the integer indices
            // ascending, then the exotic non-enumerable `length`, then the
            // ordinary string keys in insertion order. Those ordinary keys have
            // no property map to live in — a `str.match()` result's
            // `index`/`input`/`groups` and any user-assigned `arr.foo` are kept
            // in the fn-prop side table — so they are read back from there.
            Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => {
                // An ELIDED element is not an own property at all, so it
                // contributes no key — the difference behind
                // `Object.keys([1,,3])` being `['0','2']`.
                let mut keys: Vec<String> = (0..items.len())
                    .filter(|i| !self.is_hole(v, *i))
                    .map(|i| i.to_string())
                    .collect();
                if !enum_only {
                    keys.push("length".into());
                }
                keys.extend(self.fn_prop_keys(v).into_iter().filter(|k| {
                    !k.starts_with("@@")
                        && !k.starts_with('#')
                        && (!enum_only || self.prop_attrs(v, k).enumerable)
                }));
                keys
            }
            // A function/class keeps every own property in the side table. Its
            // exotic `name`/`length`/`prototype` and its class methods are all
            // non-enumerable, so under `enum_only` what is left is exactly what
            // a script assigned; `getOwnPropertyNames` reports the exotics too,
            // in V8's order (`length`, `name`, `prototype`, then the rest).
            Some(JsObj::Func(_)) | Some(JsObj::Class(_)) | Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { .. }) => {
                let mut keys: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
                if !enum_only {
                    keys.push("length".into());
                    keys.push("name".into());
                    if self.owns_prototype(v) {
                        keys.push("prototype".into());
                    }
                }
                let rest: Vec<String> = self
                    .fn_prop_keys(v)
                    .into_iter()
                    // An accessor's ordering marker resolves back to its real
                    // key, so a static getter enumerates where it was declared.
                    .filter_map(|k| match k.strip_prefix(ORD_MARKER) {
                        Some(real) => Some(real.to_string()),
                        None if !k.starts_with("@@") && !k.starts_with('#') => Some(k),
                        None => None,
                    })
                    .filter(|k| {
                        !keys.contains(k) && (!enum_only || self.prop_attrs(v, k).enumerable)
                    })
                    .collect();
                keys.extend(rest);
                keys
            }
            // A builtin namespace (`require('buffer')`, `Buffer`) enumerates the
            // members node-js implements, so a package that copies a namespace
            // key-by-key gets the working set instead of an empty object.
            Some(JsObj::Builtin(ns)) => crate::stdlib::namespace_keys(&ns.clone()),
            _ => Vec::new(),
        }
    }

    /// The own enumerable `(key, value)` pairs of `v`. Buffer index keys resolve
    /// through the byte store; everything else reads the property map. Own
    /// accessor keys come back as `Undef` here — `own_enum_entries_deep` runs
    /// their getters, which cannot happen under the host borrow.
    pub fn own_enum_entries(&self, v: &Value) -> Vec<(String, Value)> {
        self.own_enum_key_names(v)
            .into_iter()
            .map(|k| {
                let val = match self.get(v) {
                    // A Buffer's index keys read out of the hidden `@@bytes`
                    // array; resolve inline rather than through
                    // `buffer::byte_get`, which would re-borrow the host.
                    Some(JsObj::Object(props)) => props.get(&k).cloned().unwrap_or_else(|| {
                        // A Buffer's elements live in `@@bytes` and every
                        // other typed array's in `@@elems`; both are index
                        // keys with no entry in the property map.
                        let backing = props
                            .get("@@bytes")
                            .or_else(|| props.get("@@elems"))
                            .and_then(|b| self.get(b));
                        match (backing, k.parse::<usize>()) {
                            (Some(JsObj::Array(items)), Ok(i)) => {
                                items.get(i).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Undef)
                            }
                            _ => Value::Undef,
                        }
                    }),
                    // An index reads the element; any other own key (`foo`,
                    // a match result's `index`) lives in the side table.
                    Some(JsObj::Array(items)) => k
                        .parse::<usize>()
                        .ok()
                        .and_then(|i| items.get(i).cloned())
                        .or_else(|| self.fn_prop(v, &k))
                        .unwrap_or(Value::Undef),
                    Some(JsObj::Func(_)) | Some(JsObj::Class(_)) => {
                        self.fn_prop(v, &k).unwrap_or(Value::Undef)
                    }
                    _ => Value::Undef,
                };
                (k, val)
            })
            .collect()
    }
}

/// The own enumerable `(key, value)` pairs of `v` with every enumerable own
/// accessor's getter invoked — the observable shape `Object.values`,
/// `Object.entries`, object spread and `JSON.stringify` all need. Must be called
/// outside a `with_host` borrow because a getter re-enters the host.
pub fn own_enum_entries_deep(v: &Value) -> Vec<(String, Value)> {
    // A Proxy has no property map at all: its own enumerable entries come from
    // the `ownKeys` + `getOwnPropertyDescriptor` + `get` traps. A trap that
    // throws surfaces as an empty result here because this signature is
    // infallible; the callers that MUST propagate a trap throw (`Object.keys`
    // and friends) go through `builtins::object_keys`, which does.
    if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(v)) == Some(ObjKind::Proxy) {
        return crate::proxy::own_enum_entries(v).unwrap_or_default();
    }
    // A builtin namespace (`require('path')`, `Buffer`) has no property map at
    // all: its members are resolved on demand by `namespace_property`, which
    // re-enters the host and so cannot run inside `own_enum_entries`'s borrow.
    // Without this, spread and `Object.assign` copied the namespace's KEYS with
    // `undefined` for every value — measured against node v26.7.0,
    // `{...require('path')}.join` was `undefined` here and a function there,
    // while `Object.entries(require('path'))` (which resolves through
    // `builtins`, not through this borrow) was already correct. Two enumeration
    // paths, one of them silently value-less.
    if let Some(ns) = with_host(|h| match h.get(v) {
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(ns)) => Some(ns.clone()),
        _ => None,
    }) {
        return with_host(|h| h.own_enum_key_names(v))
            .into_iter()
            .map(|k| {
                let val = crate::builtins::namespace_property(&ns, &k);
                (k, val)
            })
            .collect();
    }
    let accessor_keys: Vec<String> = with_host(|h| {
        h.own_accessor_keys(v)
            .into_iter()
            .filter(|k| h.prop_attrs(v, k).enumerable)
            .collect()
    });
    let entries = with_host(|h| h.own_enum_entries(v));
    entries
        .into_iter()
        .map(|(k, val)| {
            if accessor_keys.contains(&k) {
                let got = get_prop_chain(v, &k).unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
                (k, got)
            } else {
                (k, val)
            }
        })
        .collect()
}

// ── function invocation ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────

/// Marshal a JS call argument into a native fusevm `Value` for `rust { }` FFI.
/// JS strings ride as `Value::Obj(JsObj::Str)` heap handles, which fusevm's
/// marshaller cannot read (it calls `Value::to_str`, which returns `"(obj:N)"`
/// for a handle); rewrite them to a native `Value::Str`. Numbers are already
/// native `Value::Int`/`Value::Float`, so they pass through (fusevm coerces
/// Float→i64/f64 per the export signature).
fn marshal_ffi_arg(v: &Value) -> Value {
    match v {
        Value::Obj(_) => match with_host(|h| h.as_str(v)) {
            Some(s) => Value::str(s),
            None => v.clone(),
        },
        _ => v.clone(),
    }
}

/// Resolve a bare name and call it (`f(args)`, `parseInt(args)`).
pub fn call_named(name: &str, args: Vec<Value>) -> Result<Value, String> {
    // Inline Rust FFI: the `rust { ... }` desugar emits `__rust_compile(b64,
    // line)`; compile + register the block's exported functions, returning JS
    // `undefined` (`Value::Undef`).
    if name == "__rust_compile" {
        let b64 = args
            .first()
            .map(|v| with_host(|h| h.str_of(v)))
            .unwrap_or_default();
        return fusevm::ffi::compile_and_register(&b64).map(|_| Value::Undef);
    }
    if let Some(v) = with_host(|h| h.read_name(name)) {
        return invoke(&v, args, None);
    }
    // A DIRECT eval — the literal `eval(src)` call form — is the ONLY one that
    // evaluates in the CALLER's scope; `(0, eval)(src)`, `const e = eval; e(src)`
    // and `[eval][0](src)` all reach the same function value but are INDIRECT
    // evals and evaluate in the global scope (ECMA-262 19.2.1.1 `PerformEval`).
    // This is the one place the two forms are distinguishable without a compiler
    // change: `call_named` is reached only from `ops::CALL`, which the compiler
    // emits exclusively for a bare-identifier callee, while every value-call form
    // goes through `invoke` → `call_builtin_function`. The `read_name` miss above
    // has already established that `eval` is not shadowed by a user binding.
    if name == "eval" {
        return crate::builtins::eval_source(args.first(), true);
    }
    if crate::builtins::is_known_builtin(name) {
        return crate::builtins::call_builtin_function(name, args);
    }
    // A `rust { ... }` block's exported functions are callable by bareword.
    // Reached only after user names/globals and builtins all miss, so JS code
    // always wins; the registry membership check keeps this off the hot path.
    if fusevm::ffi::is_registered(name) {
        let margs: Vec<Value> = args.iter().map(marshal_ffi_arg).collect();
        if let Some(r) = fusevm::ffi::try_call(name, &margs) {
            return r;
        }
    }
    Err(ref_error(name))
}

/// `recv.name(args)`.
pub fn call_method(recv: &Value, name: &str, args: Vec<Value>) -> Result<Value, String> {
    // `this.#m(…)` is a `[[PrivateGet]]` followed by a call, so the brand check
    // comes first: an unbranded receiver throws here rather than reporting the
    // method missing. Only a `#`-prefixed name pays the extra probe.
    if name.starts_with('#') && !with_host(|h| h.has_private(recv, name)) {
        return Err(crate::builtins::private_brand_message(name, false));
    }
    // `proxy.m(…)` is 13.3.6 `EvaluateCall`: `Get(proxy, "m")` — through the
    // `get` trap — then a call with the PROXY as `this`. The `lookup_*` shortcuts
    // below all read a property map a proxy does not have.
    if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(recv)) == Some(ObjKind::Proxy) {
        let f = crate::builtins::get_property(recv, name)?;
        if !with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
            return Err(type_error(&format!("{name} is not a function")));
        }
        // `Function.prototype.call`/`apply`/`bind`/`toString` and the REFLECTIVE
        // `Object.prototype` methods are generic over `this`. node-js models each
        // as a thunk BOUND to the object it was read off — through a proxy, that
        // is the target — so invoking the thunk answers for the target and skips
        // the traps entirely: `pf.call(1, 2)` never reached the `apply` trap and
        // `p.hasOwnProperty(k)` never reached the descriptor trap. Re-dispatch
        // those against the PROXY, which is the `this` the real method receives.
        //
        // `toString`/`valueOf`/`toLocaleString` are deliberately NOT re-dispatched
        // for a non-callable proxy: they resolve by the TARGET's kind (a proxy of
        // an array stringifies `1,2` through `Array.prototype.toString`, not
        // `[object Object]`), which the bound thunk already gets right.
        if with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(&f), Some(JsObj::BoundMethod { .. }))) {
            if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, recv)) {
                if let Some(r) = crate::builtins::function_builtin_method(recv, name, &args)? {
                    return Ok(r);
                }
            }
            if matches!(
                name,
                "hasOwnProperty" | "propertyIsEnumerable" | "isPrototypeOf"
            ) {
                return crate::builtins::object_builtin_method(recv, name, args);
            }
        }
        return invoke(&f, args, Some(recv.clone()));
    }
    // Namespace builtins (`console`, `Math`, `JSON`, ...): dispatch by qualified
    // name.
    if let Some(ns) = with_host(|h| match h.get(recv) {
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(ns)) => Some(ns.clone()),
        _ => None,
    }) {
        let qualified = format!("{ns}.{name}");
        if crate::builtins::is_known_builtin(&qualified) {
            return crate::builtins::call_builtin_function(&qualified, args);
        }
    }
    // Object / instance: an accessor getter that yields a function, an own or
    // inherited method (class methods live on the prototype chain), then an
    // Object.prototype builtin (hasOwnProperty …). Resolve via `lookup_*`
    // directly — NOT get_property — so the Object.prototype-builtin fallback
    // never routes back through a BoundMethod and recurses.
    if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(recv)) == Some(ObjKind::Object) {
        // A native stdlib instance (`Buffer`/crypto `Hash`/`EventEmitter`/`URL`/
        // fs `Stats`/http `ServerResponse`…) carries a hidden `@@native` tag.
        // A user-added or reparented-prototype method takes precedence over the
        // native dispatcher — matching JS resolution order (own → prototype
        // chain). This is what lets Express work: it does
        // `Object.setPrototypeOf(res, app.response)` and calls `res.send(...)`,
        // where `send` is a plain function on the reparented prototype. Native
        // instance methods (`res.end`/`write`/…) are NOT stored as plain
        // function properties, so `lookup_chain` misses them and we fall through
        // to `instance_call` for the real native behavior.
        if let Some(tag) = crate::stdlib::native_tag(recv) {
            if let Some(f) = with_host(|h| lookup_chain(h, recv, name)) {
                if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
                    return invoke(&f, args, Some(recv.clone()));
                }
            }
            // `Object.prototype` methods reach a native instance too — a Buffer
            // inherits `hasOwnProperty`/`isPrototypeOf` through its prototype
            // chain, and the native dispatcher has no entry for them.
            if crate::builtins::is_object_builtin_method(name)
                && !crate::stdlib::instance_has_method(&tag, name)
            {
                return crate::builtins::object_builtin_method(recv, name, args);
            }
            return crate::stdlib::instance_call(&tag, recv, name, args);
        }
        if let Some((Some(getter), _)) = with_host(|h| lookup_accessor(h, recv, name)) {
            let f = invoke(&getter, Vec::new(), Some(recv.clone()))?;
            if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
                return invoke(&f, args, Some(recv.clone()));
            }
        }
        // A Proxy in the prototype chain serves the method through its `get`
        // trap. `lookup_chain` below reads property maps, which a proxy has none
        // of, so without this `child.m()` on `Object.create(proxy)` reported
        // "m is not a function" even though `child.m` already read correctly.
        if crate::builtins::proxy_proto_link(recv, name).is_some() {
            let f = crate::builtins::get_property(recv, name)?;
            if !with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
                return Err(type_error(&format!("{name} is not a function")));
            }
            return invoke(&f, args, Some(recv.clone()));
        }
        if let Some(f) = with_host(|h| lookup_chain(h, recv, name)) {
            if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
                return invoke(&f, args, Some(recv.clone()));
            }
            return Err(type_error(&format!("{name} is not a function")));
        }
        if crate::builtins::is_object_builtin_method(name) {
            return crate::builtins::object_builtin_method(recv, name, args);
        }
        if name == "constructor" {
            if let Some(r) = call_default_ctor(recv, &args) {
                return r;
            }
        }
        return Err(type_error(&format!("{name} is not a function")));
    }
    // Function value methods: call / apply / bind, then any static method stored
    // on the function object.
    if matches!(
        with_host(|h| h.kind_of(recv)),
        Some(ObjKind::Func)
            | Some(ObjKind::Class)
            | Some(ObjKind::BoundFunc)
            | Some(ObjKind::BoundMethod)
            | Some(ObjKind::Builtin)
    ) {
        if let Some(r) = crate::builtins::function_builtin_method(recv, name, &args)? {
            return Ok(r);
        }
        // A static method (own or inherited): `this` is the constructor (`recv`).
        let stat = if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(recv)) == Some(ObjKind::Class) {
            with_host(|h| h.class_static(recv, name))
        } else {
            with_host(|h| h.fn_prop(recv, name))
        };
        if let Some(f) = stat {
            if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
                return invoke(&f, args, Some(recv.clone()));
            }
        }
        // `class_static` only walks user-class `extends` links, so a chain that
        // bottoms out in a BUILTIN constructor (`class D extends Array {}`)
        // could not reach that builtin's statics: `D.from([1,2])` threw
        // "from is not a function" even though `typeof D.from` said `function`.
        // Re-dispatch the call against that ancestor, which is what reaches a
        // builtin namespace's methods.
        if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(recv)) == Some(ObjKind::Class) {
            if let Some(anc) = with_host(|h| h.class_builtin_ancestor(recv)) {
                if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(&anc)) == Some(ObjKind::Builtin) {
                    return call_method(&anc, name, args);
                }
            }
        }
        // A method inherited via the function's [[Prototype]] chain (set with
        // `Object.setPrototypeOf(fn, proto)`) — the `router` package's router
        // functions inherit `route`/`use`/`get`/… from `Router.prototype`.
        if let Some(f) = with_host(|h| lookup_chain(h, recv, name)) {
            if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
                return invoke(&f, args, Some(recv.clone()));
            }
        }
        // An `Object.prototype` method invoked with a builtin namespace/prototype
        // as `this` (`hasOwnProperty.call(Map.prototype, 'get')`, the get-intrinsic
        // ownership probe) — dispatch it against the builtin receiver.
        if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(recv)) == Some(ObjKind::Builtin)
            && crate::builtins::is_object_builtin_method(name)
        {
            return crate::builtins::object_builtin_method(recv, name, args);
        }
    }
    if name == "constructor" {
        if let Some(r) = call_default_ctor(recv, &args) {
            return r;
        }
    }
    // Type methods (array/string/number, Map/Set/Symbol/generator methods).
    crate::builtins::call_type_method(recv, name, args)
}

/// `x.constructor(...)` invoked as a CALL when nothing on `x`'s prototype chain
/// owns a `constructor` slot.
///
/// Reading the property already resolves a builtin instance's native constructor
/// (the `constructor` arm of `builtins::get_property`), but the CALL path only
/// consulted the prototype chain, so the two disagreed:
/// `(function(){}).constructor === Function` read `true` while
/// `(function(){}).constructor('return 9')` threw
/// `TypeError: constructor is not a function`. That call form is exactly how
/// `get-intrinsic` — a transitive dependency of express — reaches the `Function`
/// constructor. Resolved here through the same one definition the read uses, so
/// the two can no longer drift apart. `None` means "not resolvable/callable",
/// leaving the caller's original error in place.
fn call_default_ctor(recv: &Value, args: &[Value]) -> Option<Result<Value, String>> {
    let ctor = crate::builtins::get_property(recv, "constructor").ok()?;
    with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &ctor)).then(|| invoke(&ctor, args.to_vec(), None))
}

/// Call any callable value.
pub fn invoke(callable: &Value, args: Vec<Value>, this: Option<Value>) -> Result<Value, String> {
    // `[[Call]]` on a Proxy runs the `apply` trap (or forwards to the target).
    // Probed by kind first so the ordinary call path never clones its arguments.
    if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(callable)) == Some(ObjKind::Proxy) {
        return crate::proxy::apply(callable, args, this).map(|r| r.expect("kind_of said Proxy"));
    }
    let obj = with_host(|h| h.get(callable).cloned());
    match obj {
        // A builtin-prototype method thunk (`Object.prototype.toString`): dispatch
        // against the invoke-time `this` (supplied by `.call`/`.apply`).
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(name)) if name.starts_with("@proto:") => {
            let recv = this.unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
            crate::builtins::proto_method(&recv, &name["@proto:".len()..], args)
        }
        // `NativeCtor.call(obj, …)` — ES5 "constructor stealing", still shipped by
        // libraries that predate `class`. `iconv-lite`'s internal codec is exactly
        // this:
        //
        //     function InternalDecoder(options, codec) { StringDecoder.call(this, codec.enc); }
        //     InternalDecoder.prototype = StringDecoder.prototype;
        //
        // A native constructor builds a fresh tagged object, so initializing the
        // SUPPLIED object means building one and moving its slots across.
        //
        // The guard is deliberately narrow: `obj` must already inherit from THIS
        // constructor's prototype, i.e. the subclass really did adopt it. Without
        // that, `Date.call(x)` and `Buffer.call(x)` — which in JS ignore `this` and
        // return a string / a buffer — would start mutating `x` instead.
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(ref name)) if steals_ctor(name, this.as_ref()) => {
            let target = this.expect("guard checked");
            let built = crate::stdlib::construct(name, &args)
                .expect("guard checked a native constructor")?;
            adopt_native_slots(&target, &built);
            Ok(Value::Undef)
        }
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(name)) => crate::builtins::call_builtin_function(&name, args),
        Some(JsObj::Func(fv)) => run_user_func(&fv, args, this),
        // A method read off an object is modelled as a thunk BOUND to it, but an
        // explicit `.call`/`.apply` receiver still wins — `Function.prototype.call`
        // rebinds `this`, and every `Array.prototype` method is generic over it, so
        // `[].slice.call(arrayLike)` must run against the ARGUMENT. Dropping the
        // override made that read back as the empty array the thunk was read off.
        // A nullish override is ignored: it carries no receiver to dispatch on.
        Some(JsObj::BoundMethod { recv, name }) => {
            let target = match &this {
                Some(t) if !matches!(t, Value::Undef) && !with_host(|h| h.is_null(t)) => t,
                _ => &recv,
            };
            // A thunk read off an ARRAY carries an `Array.prototype` method, and
            // those are generic over `this` — route the rebound call through
            // `proto_method` so an array-LIKE receiver takes the generic path
            // instead of being told the method does not exist.
            if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(&recv)) == Some(ObjKind::Array) {
                return crate::builtins::proto_method(target, &format!("Array:{name}"), args);
            }
            call_method(target, &name, args)
        }
        Some(JsObj::BoundFunc {
            target,
            this: bthis,
            args: pre,
        }) => {
            let mut all = pre;
            all.extend(args);
            invoke(&target, all, Some(bthis))
        }
        Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => Err(type_error(&format!(
            "Class constructor {} cannot be invoked without 'new'",
            c.name
        ))),
        _ => Err(type_error(&format!(
            "{} is not a function",
            with_host(|h| h.str_of(callable))
        ))),
    }
}

/// Whether calling the native constructor `name` with `this` is the ES5
/// constructor-stealing pattern rather than an ordinary call.
///
/// True only when `name` really is a native stdlib constructor AND `this` is a
/// plain object that already inherits from that constructor's prototype — the
/// signature of `Sub.prototype = Native.prototype; Native.call(this, …)`. An
/// object that merely happens to be passed as `this` does not qualify, so
/// `Date.call(x)` / `Buffer.call(x)` keep their JS meaning (ignore `this`).
fn steals_ctor(name: &str, this: Option<&Value>) -> bool {
    let Some(target) = this else { return false };
    if !with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(target), Some(JsObj::Object(_)))) {
        return false;
    }
    // Already initialized (e.g. a re-entrant call) — nothing to steal.
    if crate::stdlib::native_tag(target).is_some() {
        return false;
    }
    let Some(proto) = with_host(|h| h.ensure_ctor_proto(name)) else {
        return false;
    };
    let mut cur = with_host(|h| h.proto_of(target));
    while let Some(p) = cur {
        if p == proto {
            return true;
        }
        cur = with_host(|h| h.proto_of(&p));
    }
    false
}

/// Move a freshly-constructed native instance's state onto `target`, so an
/// object built by a subclass constructor becomes a working instance of the
/// native class. Copies every own key the native constructor set — the hidden
/// `@@`-prefixed slots that carry the state AND the plain ones it exposes
/// (`StringDecoder`'s `encoding`) — without disturbing keys `target` already has.
fn adopt_native_slots(target: &Value, built: &Value) {
    let slots: Vec<(String, Value)> = with_host(|h| match h.get(built) {
        Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => p.iter().map(|(k, v)| (k.clone(), v.clone())).collect(),
        _ => Vec::new(),
    });
    with_host(|h| {
        if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = h.get_mut(target) {
            for (k, v) in slots {
                p.insert(k, v);
            }
        }
    });
}

/// Execute a user function/closure body on a fresh frame.
pub fn run_user_func(fv: &FuncVal, args: Vec<Value>, this: Option<Value>) -> Result<Value, String> {
    run_user_func_nt(fv, args, this, None)
}

/// As `run_user_func`, but with an explicit `new.target` (set by `new`).
pub fn run_user_func_nt(
    fv: &FuncVal,
    args: Vec<Value>,
    this: Option<Value>,
    new_target: Option<Value>,
) -> Result<Value, String> {
    // Only the light fields: cloning the whole `FuncDef` cloned its `Chunk` —
    // the entire compiled body, `sub_chunks` and all — on every single call.
    // The chunk is now reached once per pooled VM, in the two arms below.
    let (params, is_generator, is_async, is_arrow_def, def_name) = with_host(|h| {
        let d = &h.funcs[fv.def_id];
        (
            d.params.clone(),
            d.is_generator,
            d.is_async,
            d.is_arrow,
            d.name.clone(),
        )
    });
    let env = new_env(fv.env.clone());
    // Bind the simple/rest arg slots; destructuring + defaults run in the body
    // prologue (compiled ahead of the user statements).
    bind_params(&env, &params, args, is_arrow_def);
    // Arrow functions capture `this` lexically; regular functions receive it.
    let this_val = if fv.is_arrow { fv.this.clone() } else { this };
    // A generator function does not run its body on call — it returns a suspended
    // generator over the already-bound frame.
    if is_generator {
        let chunk = with_host(|h| h.funcs[fv.def_id].chunk.clone());
        let gen = make_generator(chunk, env, this_val, fv.home_class.clone());
        if is_async {
            if let Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) = with_host(|h| h.get(&gen).cloned()) {
                with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].async_gen = true);
            }
        }
        return Ok(gen);
    }
    // An async function runs on a coroutine and returns a Promise: it executes
    // synchronously up to the first `await`, then continues via microtasks.
    if is_async {
        let chunk = with_host(|h| h.funcs[fv.def_id].chunk.clone());
        let gen = make_generator(chunk, env, this_val, fv.home_class.clone());
        return Ok(run_async(gen));
    }
    let home = fv
        .home_class
        .as_ref()
        .and_then(|n| with_host(|h| h.class_registry.get(n).cloned()));
    with_host(|h| {
        h.frames.push(Frame {
            base_env: env.clone(),
            env,
            this_obj: this_val,
            new_target,
            home_class: home,
            line: 0,
            owner: Some(def_name),
            is_module: false,
        })
    });
    let r = run_chunk_keyed(func_key(fv.def_id), || {
        with_host(|h| h.funcs[fv.def_id].chunk.clone())
    });
    let sig = with_host(|h| {
        h.frames.pop();
        h.signal.take()
    });
    match r {
        Err(e) => Err(e),
        Ok(_) => Ok(match sig {
            Some(Signal::Return(v)) => v,
            _ => Value::Undef,
        }),
    }
}

/// Bind positional args into a fresh call environment. The compiler emits the
/// param names in `def.params`; a `...rest` slot collects the tail as an array.
fn bind_params(env: &Env, params: &[ParamSlot], args: Vec<Value>, is_arrow: bool) {
    let mut vars = VarMap::default();
    let mut i = 0;
    for slot in params {
        if slot.rest {
            let rest: Vec<Value> = args.get(i..).map(|s| s.to_vec()).unwrap_or_default();
            let arr = with_host(|h| h.new_array(rest));
            vars.insert(slot.name.clone(), arr);
        } else {
            let v = args.get(i).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
            vars.insert(slot.name.clone(), v);
            i += 1;
        }
    }
    // `arguments` array (simple approximation — see BUGS.md: it is a real
    // Array, not an Arguments exotic). An ARROW function never gets one:
    // `FunctionDeclarationInstantiation` (10.2.11) creates the binding only for
    // a non-arrow, so `arguments` inside an arrow resolves lexically to the
    // enclosing function's. Binding an empty one here made
    // `function f(){ const g = () => [...arguments]; }` see zero args.
    if !is_arrow {
        let args_arr = with_host(|h| h.new_array(args));
        vars.entry("arguments".to_string()).or_insert(args_arr);
    }
    env.borrow_mut().vars = vars;
}

/// Construct an instance with `new` — creates a fresh object, binds it as
/// `this`, runs the constructor, and returns the object (unless the constructor
/// returns its own object).
pub fn construct(ctor: &Value, args: Vec<Value>) -> Result<Value, String> {
    construct_nt(ctor, args, ctor.clone())
}

/// `new` with an explicit `new.target` (differs from `ctor` when a derived class
/// calls `super(...)` — the target stays the originally-`new`ed class).
pub fn construct_nt(ctor: &Value, args: Vec<Value>, new_target: Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
    // `new proxy(…)` runs the `construct` trap (or forwards to the target).
    if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(ctor)) == Some(ObjKind::Proxy) {
        return crate::proxy::construct(ctor, args, &new_target)
            .map(|r| r.expect("kind_of said Proxy"));
    }
    let obj = with_host(|h| h.get(ctor).cloned());
    match obj {
        Some(JsObj::Class(_)) => construct_class(ctor, args, new_target),
        Some(JsObj::Func(fv)) => {
            // Only an ORDINARY function has a `[[Construct]]` slot. An arrow, a
            // `function*` and an `async function` are callable but not
            // constructable (10.2.2 is installed only for the ordinary case), so
            // `new` on one is a TypeError — node-js instead ran the body and
            // handed back a half-built instance (for a generator, an object whose
            // constructor had returned a suspended generator).
            let non_ctor = with_host(|h| {
                h.funcs
                    .get(fv.def_id)
                    // A MethodDefinition is in the same boat: `new ({m(){}}).m()`
                    // is `TypeError: o.m is not a constructor` on node v26.7.0,
                    // which is also why a method owns no `prototype`.
                    .map(|d| d.is_generator || d.is_async || d.is_method)
                    .unwrap_or(false)
            });
            if fv.is_arrow || non_ctor {
                return Err(not_a_constructor(ctor));
            }
            // A plain constructor function: instance delegates to `fn.prototype`
            // (auto-created with a `.constructor` back-link if not yet accessed).
            let inst = with_host(|h| {
                let o = h.new_object(IndexMap::new());
                let proto = h.fn_prop(ctor, "prototype").unwrap_or_else(|| {
                    let p = h.new_object(IndexMap::new());
                    if let Some(JsObj::Object(pp)) = h.get_mut(&p) {
                        pp.insert("constructor".to_string(), ctor.clone());
                    }
                    // `F.prototype.constructor` is non-enumerable in JS.
                    h.hide_prop(&p, "constructor");
                    h.set_fn_prop(ctor, "prototype", p.clone());
                    p
                });
                h.set_proto(&o, proto);
                o
            });
            let r = run_user_func_nt(&fv, args, Some(inst.clone()), Some(new_target))?;
            if returns_object(&r) {
                Ok(r)
            } else {
                Ok(inst)
            }
        }
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(name)) => crate::builtins::construct_builtin(&name, args),
        Some(JsObj::BoundFunc {
            target, args: pre, ..
        }) => {
            let mut all = pre;
            all.extend(args);
            construct_nt(&target, all, new_target)
        }
        _ => Err(not_a_constructor(ctor)),
    }
}

/// `TypeError: <callee> is not a constructor`.
///
/// V8 names the callee by its SOURCE TEXT (`new g()` reports `g`, `new o.m()`
/// reports `o.m`); node-js keeps no spans, so a named callable is reported by
/// its name — the same string in the common case — and anything else by its
/// value.
fn not_a_constructor(ctor: &Value) -> String {
    let name = with_host(|h| match h.callable_name(ctor) {
        n if n.is_empty() => h.str_of(ctor),
        n => n,
    });
    type_error(&format!("{name} is not a constructor"))
}

/// Whether a constructor's return value is an object (so `new` yields it instead
/// of the fresh instance). In JS "object" includes functions — the `router`
/// package's constructor `return router` (a function) must be honored, or the
/// returned router loses its callable identity.
fn returns_object(r: &Value) -> bool {
    matches!(
        with_host(|h| h.get(r).cloned()),
        Some(JsObj::Object(_))
            | Some(JsObj::Array(_))
            | Some(JsObj::Map { .. })
            | Some(JsObj::Set { .. })
            | Some(JsObj::Func(_))
            | Some(JsObj::Class(_))
            | Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { .. })
            | Some(JsObj::BoundMethod { .. })
            | Some(JsObj::RegExp(_))
    )
}

/// Construct a `class` instance: allocate the object linked to `C.prototype`,
/// run field initializers + the constructor (which may call `super(...)`).
fn construct_class(
    class_val: &Value,
    args: Vec<Value>,
    new_target: Value,
) -> Result<Value, String> {
    let cv = match with_host(|h| h.get(class_val).cloned()) {
        Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => c,
        _ => return Err(type_error("not a class")),
    };
    // Resolve the prototype of the *most-derived* class being `new`ed, so an
    // instance created through a `super()` chain still delegates to the leaf
    // prototype (correct method resolution).
    let leaf_proto = match with_host(|h| h.get(&new_target).cloned()) {
        Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => c.proto.clone(),
        _ => cv.proto.clone(),
    };
    let inst = with_host(|h| {
        let o = h.new_object(IndexMap::new());
        h.set_proto(&o, leaf_proto.clone());
        o
    });
    // A constructor that returns an object replaces the instance (`new` semantics).
    match run_class_ctor(&cv, &inst, args, &new_target)? {
        Some(obj) if returns_object(&obj) => Ok(obj),
        _ => Ok(inst),
    }
}

/// Run one class's field initializers then its constructor on an existing
/// instance. Returns the constructor's explicit object return (if any). For a
/// base class this is the whole init; for a derived class the constructor body
/// reaches `super(...)` which recurses into the parent.
fn run_class_ctor(
    cv: &ClassVal,
    inst: &Value,
    args: Vec<Value>,
    new_target: &Value,
) -> Result<Option<Value>, String> {
    // A derived class must run its fields AFTER super() returns; SUPER_CALL does
    // that. A base class initializes fields before the constructor body.
    if cv.parent.is_none() {
        init_fields(cv, inst)?;
    }
    match &cv.ctor {
        Some(ctor_fn) => {
            let fv = match with_host(|h| h.get(ctor_fn).cloned()) {
                Some(JsObj::Func(f)) => f,
                _ => return Err(type_error("class constructor is not a function")),
            };
            let r = run_user_func_nt(&fv, args, Some(inst.clone()), Some(new_target.clone()))?;
            return Ok(Some(r));
        }
        None => {
            // Default constructor: `constructor(...a){ super(...a); }` for a
            // derived class, empty for a base class.
            if let Some(parent) = &cv.parent {
                super_construct(parent, args, inst, new_target)?;
                init_fields(cv, inst)?;
            }
        }
    }
    Ok(None)
}

/// Evaluate and assign a class's instance-field initializers on `inst`.
fn init_fields(cv: &ClassVal, inst: &Value) -> Result<(), String> {
    for (name, thunk, name_anon) in &cv.fields {
        init_one_field(inst, name, thunk, *name_anon)?;
    }
    Ok(())
}

/// Evaluate ONE instance-field initializer thunk and install the result on
/// `inst`.
///
/// Shared by the base-class path (`init_fields`) and the derived-class path
/// that runs after `super(...)`; the two used to be separate loops, and only the
/// first canonicalized an array-index key.
///
/// `name_anon` carries 15.7.10's NamedEvaluation: `class C { f = function(){} }`
/// gives the function the name `f`. It is decided by the compiler from the
/// syntax, never from the value.
pub fn init_one_field(
    inst: &Value,
    name: &str,
    thunk: &Value,
    name_anon: bool,
) -> Result<(), String> {
    // The thunk is an arrow capturing the class scope; run it with `this`=inst
    // so `this.other`-referencing initializers work.
    let val = invoke(thunk, Vec::new(), Some(inst.clone()))?;
    with_host(|h| {
        if name_anon {
            let s = h.new_str(name.to_string());
            h.set_fn_prop(&val, "name", s);
        }
        if let Some(JsObj::Object(props)) = h.get_mut(inst) {
            let is_new = !props.contains_key(name);
            props.insert(name.to_string(), val);
            if is_new && array_index(name).is_some() {
                canonicalize_own_keys(props);
            }
        }
    });
    Ok(())
}

/// Run a parent constructor as part of `super(...)`: dispatch on the parent's
/// kind (class vs plain function vs builtin) using the existing instance.
pub fn super_construct(
    parent: &Value,
    args: Vec<Value>,
    inst: &Value,
    new_target: &Value,
) -> Result<(), String> {
    match with_host(|h| h.get(parent).cloned()) {
        Some(JsObj::Class(pcv)) => run_class_ctor(&pcv, inst, args, new_target).map(|_| ()),
        Some(JsObj::Func(fv)) => {
            run_user_func_nt(&fv, args, Some(inst.clone()), Some(new_target.clone()))?;
            Ok(())
        }
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(name)) => {
            // Extending a builtin (e.g. `class E extends Error`): copy the built
            // object's own props onto the instance so the subclass instance
            // carries them.
            let built = crate::builtins::construct_builtin(&name, args)?;
            adopt_own_props(inst, &built);
            Ok(())
        }
        // A Proxy parent (`class D extends new Proxy(B, {})`): `super(…)` is
        // `[[Construct]]` on the proxy, so the `construct` trap runs (or forwards
        // to the target). node-js initializes an ALREADY-allocated `inst` rather
        // than adopting the constructor's return value, so what the proxy built
        // is moved across — the same move the builtin arm makes.
        Some(JsObj::Proxy { .. }) => {
            let built = construct_nt(parent, args, new_target.clone())?;
            adopt_own_props(inst, &built);
            Ok(())
        }
        _ => Err(type_error("super is not a constructor")),
    }
}

/// Move `built`'s own properties (and their attributes) onto `inst`. Used where
/// a parent constructor produces a fresh object but node-js's class model has
/// already allocated the instance `this` is bound to.
fn adopt_own_props(inst: &Value, built: &Value) {
    let entries: Vec<(String, Value)> = with_host(|h| match h.get(built) {
        Some(JsObj::Object(p)) => p.iter().map(|(k, v)| (k.clone(), v.clone())).collect(),
        _ => Vec::new(),
    });
    with_host(|h| {
        let keys: Vec<String> = entries.iter().map(|(k, _)| k.clone()).collect();
        if let Some(JsObj::Object(props)) = h.get_mut(inst) {
            for (k, v) in entries {
                props.insert(k, v);
            }
            canonicalize_own_keys(props);
        }
        // The copied slots keep the attributes the source gave them, so
        // `class E extends Error` instances hide `message`/`stack` too.
        for k in keys {
            let a = h.prop_attrs(built, &k);
            h.set_prop_attrs(inst, &k, a);
        }
    });
}

// ── class construction (runtime) ─────────────────────────────────────────────

/// Build a class constructor value from its parts. The compiler emits (via
/// `MKCLASS`) the evaluated parent (or undefined) and the constructor closure (or
/// undefined for a default constructor); methods/getters/setters/statics/fields
/// are installed afterward by `DEF_MEMBER`/`DEF_FIELD`.
pub fn build_class(name: &str, parent: Value, ctor: Value) -> Value {
    // A Proxy parent (`class D extends new Proxy(B, {})`): `D.prototype`'s
    // `[[Prototype]]` is `Get(parent, "prototype")` — a read that runs the `get`
    // trap and so re-enters the host, which the borrow below cannot allow.
    // Without it the link fell back to `Object.prototype` and every inherited
    // method went missing.
    let proxy_parent_proto = (with_host(|h| h.kind_of(&parent)) == Some(ObjKind::Proxy))
        .then(|| crate::builtins::get_property(&parent, "prototype").ok())
        .flatten();
    with_host(|h| {
        let parent_opt = if matches!(parent, Value::Undef) {
            None
        } else {
            Some(parent.clone())
        };
        // The class prototype delegates to the parent's prototype (or
        // Object.prototype for a base class). Extending a builtin error links to
        // that error's prototype so `instanceof Error` holds for the subclass.
        let parent_proto = match &parent_opt {
            Some(_) if proxy_parent_proto.is_some() => {
                proxy_parent_proto.clone().expect("checked is_some")
            }
            Some(p) => match h.get(p).cloned() {
                Some(JsObj::Class(pc)) => pc.proto.clone(),
                Some(JsObj::Builtin(bn)) => {
                    h.ensure_error_protos();
                    error_proto_of(h, &bn)
                        .or_else(|| h.fn_prop(p, "prototype"))
                        .unwrap_or_else(|| h.object_proto())
                }
                _ => h
                    .fn_prop(p, "prototype")
                    .unwrap_or_else(|| h.object_proto()),
            },
            None => h.object_proto(),
        };
        let proto = h.new_object(IndexMap::new());
        h.set_proto(&proto, parent_proto);
        let ctor_opt = if matches!(ctor, Value::Undef) {
            None
        } else {
            Some(ctor.clone())
        };
        // Give the constructor closure its home class (for `super.method()`), and
        // record its `.name`.
        if let Some(cf) = &ctor_opt {
            if let Some(JsObj::Func(f)) = h.get_mut(cf) {
                f.home_class = Some(name.to_string());
            }
        }
        let cval = ClassVal {
            name: name.to_string(),
            ctor: ctor_opt,
            parent: parent_opt,
            proto: proto.clone(),
            statics: IndexMap::new(),
            fields: Vec::new(),
        };
        let class_val = h.alloc(JsObj::Class(cval));
        h.class_registry.insert(name.to_string(), class_val.clone());
        // Link prototype → class (for instance display + `constructor`), and give
        // the class its own `prototype` fn-prop so `C.prototype` reads work.
        h.tag_proto_class(&proto, class_val.clone());
        h.set_fn_prop(&class_val, "prototype", proto.clone());
        // `Class.prototype.constructor === Class`.
        if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = h.get_mut(&proto) {
            p.insert("constructor".to_string(), class_val.clone());
        }
        h.hide_prop(&proto, "constructor");
        class_val
    })
}

/// Install a method / getter / setter on a class (`DEF_MEMBER`). `kind` is a
/// `member::*` tag; `is_static` targets the constructor side.
pub fn define_member(class_val: &Value, name: &str, kind: i64, is_static: bool, func: Value) {
    with_host(|h| {
        let cname = match h.get(class_val) {
            Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => c.name.clone(),
            _ => String::new(),
        };
        // A private method/accessor: remember which class declared it, so a
        // brand-check failure can name the class the way node does. A static
        // FIELD is data, not a method, so it keeps the field wording.
        if name.starts_with('#') && kind != member::STATIC_FIELD {
            h.note_private_method(name);
        }
        // Give the method its home class for `super.x()`.
        if let Some(JsObj::Func(f)) = h.get_mut(&func) {
            f.home_class = Some(cname);
        }
        // Static members live on the constructor (fn-props / static accessors);
        // instance members on the prototype.
        let target = if is_static {
            class_val.clone()
        } else {
            match h.get(class_val) {
                Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => c.proto.clone(),
                _ => return,
            }
        };
        match kind {
            member::GET => h.set_accessor(&target, name, Some(func), None),
            member::SET => h.set_accessor(&target, name, None, Some(func)),
            _ => {
                // A static field is enumerable (`Object.keys(C)` lists it) unlike
                // a method, so it must not reach the `hide_prop` below.
                if kind == member::STATIC_FIELD {
                    if let Some(JsObj::Class(c)) = h.get_mut(class_val) {
                        c.statics.insert(name.to_string(), func.clone());
                    }
                    h.set_fn_prop(class_val, name, func);
                    return;
                }
                if is_static {
                    if let Some(JsObj::Class(c)) = h.get_mut(class_val) {
                        c.statics.insert(name.to_string(), func.clone());
                    }
                    h.set_fn_prop(class_val, name, func);
                } else if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = h.get_mut(&target) {
                    p.insert(name.to_string(), func);
                }
            }
        }
        // Class methods and accessors are non-enumerable (ES2015 ClassDefinition-
        // Evaluation), so `for (k in instance)` walking the prototype chain never
        // yields them and `Object.keys(C.prototype)` is empty.
        h.hide_prop(&target, name);
    });
}

/// Register an instance-field initializer thunk on a class (`DEF_FIELD`).
pub fn define_field(class_val: &Value, name: &str, thunk: Value, name_anon: bool) {
    with_host(|h| {
        if let Some(JsObj::Class(c)) = h.get_mut(class_val) {
            c.fields.push((name.to_string(), thunk, name_anon));
        }
    });
}

/// The `[[Prototype]]` object a constructor value hands to its instances
/// (`Ctor.prototype`), for `instanceof`.
fn ctor_prototype(h: &JsHost, ctor: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
    match h.get(ctor) {
        Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => Some(c.proto.clone()),
        Some(JsObj::Func(_)) => h.fn_prop(ctor, "prototype"),
        // A builtin's prototype lives in one of two registries: the error
        // prototypes, or the native exotic prototypes (`Buffer.prototype`,
        // `Uint8Array.prototype`). Consulting only the first made `instanceof`
        // blind to the real `Buffer.prototype → Uint8Array.prototype` chain, so
        // `Buffer.prototype instanceof Uint8Array` read false even though the
        // link was there — the instance case only passed via a native-tag
        // special case, which a prototype object does not carry.
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(name)) => h
            .error_protos
            .get(name)
            .or_else(|| h.native_protos.get(name))
            .cloned(),
        Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { target, .. }) => ctor_prototype(h, &target.clone()),
        _ => None,
    }
}

/// `ctor.prototype` in the SAME representation `builtins::prototype_of` yields,
/// so a chain walk driven by that function can compare the two with `strict_eq`.
///
/// `ctor_prototype` answers only for the constructors whose prototype object
/// really exists on the heap (classes, user functions, the error and native
/// exotics). A bare builtin like `Object`/`Array` has none there — its instances
/// report `h.object_proto()` / a `Builtin("<C>.prototype")` handle — so this
/// mirrors that fallback rather than reporting "no prototype" and failing every
/// comparison.
fn walk_target_prototype(ctor: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
    if let Some(p) = with_host(|h| ctor_prototype(h, ctor)) {
        return Some(p);
    }
    let name = with_host(|h| match h.get(ctor) {
        Some(JsObj::Builtin(n)) => Some(n.clone()),
        _ => None,
    })?;
    if name == "Object" {
        return Some(with_host(|h| h.object_proto()));
    }
    Some(with_host(|h| {
        h.alloc(JsObj::Builtin(format!("{name}.prototype")))
    }))
}

/// V8's "not a function" wording for a value that was expected to be callable.
/// A number/string/boolean is named WITH its value (`number 1 is not a
/// function`, `string "s" is not a function`); every other type is named by type
/// alone (`object is not a function`, `symbol is not a function`).
fn not_a_function_message(v: &Value) -> String {
    with_host(|h| match v {
        Value::Bool(b) => format!("boolean {b} is not a function"),
        Value::Int(_) | Value::Float(_) => format!("number {} is not a function", h.str_of(v)),
        Value::Str(s) => format!("string \"{s}\" is not a function"),
        Value::Obj(_) => match h.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => format!("string \"{s}\" is not a function"),
            Some(JsObj::Symbol { .. }) => "symbol is not a function".into(),
            Some(JsObj::BigInt(_)) => "bigint is not a function".into(),
            _ => "object is not a function".into(),
        },
        _ => "object is not a function".into(),
    })
}

/// `obj instanceof ctor` — walk `obj`'s prototype chain looking for
/// `ctor.prototype`.
pub fn instance_of(obj: &Value, ctor: &Value) -> Result<bool, String> {
    // 13.10.2 InstanceofOperator step 3: a `Symbol.hasInstance` method on the
    // right-hand side REPLACES the prototype-chain walk entirely, and it is
    // consulted before the callability check — which is why a plain (uncallable)
    // object that defines it is a legal `instanceof` right-hand side.
    if matches!(ctor, Value::Obj(_)) {
        // `class C { static [Symbol.hasInstance](){} }` and a method defined on a
        // plain function both land in the fn-prop side table (which
        // `class_static` reads, following the `extends` chain), NOT in an object
        // property map — so consulting only `lookup_chain` would find the object
        // literal form and silently miss the two forms V8 users actually write.
        let handler = with_host(|h| {
            h.class_static(ctor, "@@hasInstance")
                .or_else(|| lookup_chain(h, ctor, "@@hasInstance"))
        });
        // GetMethod (7.3.11) treats only `undefined`/`null` as "absent"; anything
        // else that is not callable is a TypeError, so a data property here does
        // NOT fall back to the prototype walk.
        match handler {
            Some(f) if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) => {
                let r = invoke(&f, vec![obj.clone()], Some(ctor.clone()))?;
                return Ok(with_host(|h| h.truthy(&r)));
            }
            Some(f)
                if !matches!(f, Value::Undef)
                    && !with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(&f), Some(JsObj::Null))) =>
            {
                return Err(type_error(&not_a_function_message(&f)));
            }
            _ => {}
        }
    }
    // 13.10.2 InstanceofOperator validates the RIGHT-hand side FIRST, so
    // `1 instanceof 3` throws even though the left side could never match.
    // Returning early on the left side skipped that check entirely.
    let ctor_callable = with_host(|h| {
        matches!(
            h.get(ctor),
            Some(JsObj::Func(_))
                | Some(JsObj::Class(_))
                | Some(JsObj::Builtin(_))
                | Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { .. })
        )
    });
    if !ctor_callable {
        // V8 has TWO messages here and they are not interchangeable: a primitive
        // right-hand side is "not an object", an object that is merely not
        // callable is "not callable". Only the second was implemented, so
        // `1 instanceof 3` reported nothing at all.
        return Err(type_error(if matches!(ctor, Value::Obj(_)) {
            "Right-hand side of 'instanceof' is not callable"
        } else {
            "Right-hand side of 'instanceof' is not an object"
        }));
    }
    // A non-object left-hand side is never an instance — but only after the
    // right-hand side has been validated above.
    if !matches!(obj, Value::Obj(_)) {
        return Ok(false);
    }
    // A Proxy shares no heap variant with its target, so the structural arms
    // below would misclassify it. 10.5.3 says `OrdinaryHasInstance` walks
    // `[[GetPrototypeOf]]`, i.e. the handler's `getPrototypeOf` trap — run that
    // walk here, which also gives a custom trap the final say.
    if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(obj)) == Some(ObjKind::Proxy) {
        with_host(|h| {
            h.ensure_error_protos();
            h.ensure_native_protos();
        });
        let Some(target) = walk_target_prototype(ctor) else {
            return Ok(false);
        };
        let mut cur = crate::proxy::get_prototype_of(obj)?.unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
        for _ in 0..100 {
            if matches!(cur, Value::Undef) || with_host(|h| h.is_null(&cur)) {
                return Ok(false);
            }
            if with_host(|h| h.strict_eq(&cur, &target)) {
                return Ok(true);
            }
            cur = crate::builtins::prototype_of(&cur);
        }
        return Ok(false);
    }
    // Builtin constructors whose instances aren't prototype-linked in our model
    // (arrays/plain objects/functions) get a structural instanceof.
    if let Some(JsObj::Builtin(name)) = with_host(|h| h.get(ctor).cloned()) {
        let kind = with_host(|h| h.get(obj).cloned());
        match name.as_str() {
            "Array" => return Ok(matches!(kind, Some(JsObj::Array(_)))),
            "Function" => return Ok(with_host(|h| is_callable(h, obj))),
            // Map/Set/Promise instances are distinct heap variants, not
            // prototype-linked, so match them structurally (a WeakMap/WeakSet is a
            // Map/Set with `weak: true`, so `weakMap instanceof Map` is false).
            "Map" => return Ok(matches!(kind, Some(JsObj::Map { weak: false, .. }))),
            "WeakMap" => return Ok(matches!(kind, Some(JsObj::Map { weak: true, .. }))),
            "Set" => return Ok(matches!(kind, Some(JsObj::Set { weak: false, .. }))),
            "WeakSet" => return Ok(matches!(kind, Some(JsObj::Set { weak: true, .. }))),
            "Promise" => return Ok(matches!(kind, Some(JsObj::Promise { .. }))),
            // A RegExp is its own heap variant too, not a prototype-linked object.
            "RegExp" => return Ok(matches!(kind, Some(JsObj::RegExp(_)))),
            "Object" => {
                // Everything object-typed except a null-prototype object is an
                // Object instance.
                let is_obj = matches!(
                    kind,
                    Some(JsObj::Object(_))
                        | Some(JsObj::Array(_))
                        | Some(JsObj::Func(_))
                        | Some(JsObj::Class(_))
                        | Some(JsObj::Map { .. })
                        | Some(JsObj::Set { .. })
                        | Some(JsObj::Promise { .. })
                        | Some(JsObj::Generator { .. })
                        | Some(JsObj::RegExp(_))
                );
                if is_obj {
                    // A null-prototype object (Object.create(null) or
                    // setPrototypeOf(o, null)) is NOT an Object instance.
                    if with_host(|h| h.has_null_proto(obj)) {
                        return Ok(false);
                    }
                    return Ok(true);
                }
                return Ok(false);
            }
            // A Node `Buffer` IS a `Uint8Array` subclass instance.
            "Uint8Array" if crate::stdlib::native_tag(obj).as_deref() == Some("Buffer") => {
                return Ok(true);
            }
            // Every typed array carries the same `TypedArray` tag; the constructor
            // it is an instance of is its ELEMENT KIND.
            k if crate::stdlib::native_tag(obj).as_deref() == Some("TypedArray") => {
                return Ok(crate::stdlib::typedarray::kind_of(obj) == k);
            }
            // A native-tagged instance (`WeakRef`, `FinalizationRegistry`,
            // `TextEncoder`, …) is an instance of the builtin whose name matches
            // its hidden `@@native` tag.
            other => {
                if crate::stdlib::native_tag(obj).as_deref() == Some(other) {
                    return Ok(true);
                }
            }
        }
    }
    with_host(|h| h.ensure_error_protos());
    // The native exotic prototypes are built lazily; `instanceof` may be the
    // first thing to ask for them, so materialise them before the chain walk.
    with_host(|h| h.ensure_native_protos());
    let target = match with_host(|h| ctor_prototype(h, ctor)) {
        Some(p) => p,
        None => return Ok(false),
    };
    let mut cur = with_host(|h| h.proto_of(obj));
    while let Some(p) = cur {
        if with_host(|h| h.strict_eq(&p, &target)) {
            return Ok(true);
        }
        cur = with_host(|h| h.proto_of(&p));
    }
    Ok(false)
}

// ── generators (stackful coroutines, same-thread via corosensei) ─────────────

impl JsHost {
    /// Swap the volatile execution context in one shot, returning the previous
    /// one — installs a generator's context on resume, pulls it back on suspend.
    fn install_gen_ctx(&mut self, mut c: GenContext) -> GenContext {
        std::mem::swap(&mut self.frames, &mut c.frames);
        std::mem::swap(&mut self.error, &mut c.error);
        std::mem::swap(&mut self.exc, &mut c.exc);
        std::mem::swap(&mut self.signal, &mut c.signal);
        c
    }
    pub fn is_generator_val(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        matches!(self.get(v), Some(JsObj::Generator { .. }))
    }
    /// Whether `v` is an ASYNC generator object — the borrow-free form of
    /// [`is_async_generator`], usable from code already holding the host.
    pub fn is_async_gen_val(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) => self
                .generators
                .get(*id as usize)
                .map(|g| g.async_gen)
                .unwrap_or(false),
            _ => false,
        }
    }
    pub fn gen_done(&self, id: u32) -> bool {
        self.generators
            .get(id as usize)
            .map(|g| g.done)
            .unwrap_or(true)
    }
    fn gen_started(&self, id: u32) -> bool {
        self.generators
            .get(id as usize)
            .map(|g| g.started)
            .unwrap_or(false)
    }
}

/// Build a suspended generator whose body is `chunk`, run in a frame with the
/// already-bound `env`. Nothing executes until the first `gen_resume`.
fn make_generator(
    chunk: Chunk,
    env: Env,
    this_val: Option<Value>,
    home_class: Option<String>,
) -> Value {
    let home = home_class
        .as_ref()
        .and_then(|n| with_host(|h| h.class_registry.get(n).cloned()));
    let frame = Frame {
        base_env: env.clone(),
        env,
        this_obj: this_val,
        new_target: None,
        home_class: home,
        line: 0,
        owner: None,
        is_module: false,
    };
    let id = with_host(|h| {
        let id = h.generators.len() as u32;
        h.generators.push(GenCell {
            coro: None,
            yielder: std::ptr::null(),
            ctx: GenContext {
                frames: vec![frame],
                ..GenContext::default()
            },
            done: false,
            started: false,
            inject: None,
            async_gen: false,
            queue: std::collections::VecDeque::new(),
            running: false,
            stack_floor: 0,
        });
        id
    });
    let body = move |yielder: &corosensei::Yielder<Value, Value>, _first: Value| {
        ensure_coroutine_floor();
        // Same thread → publish the yielder so `yield` (deep in the body's VM)
        // can reach it. Valid for the whole body lifetime.
        with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].yielder = yielder as *const _ as *const ());
        let r = run_chunk_on(chunk);
        // A `return` inside the body leaves a Return signal carrying the final
        // value; capture it so `.next()` reports it as the completion value.
        let ret = with_host(|h| match h.signal.take() {
            Some(Signal::Return(v)) => v,
            _ => Value::Undef,
        });
        r.map(|_| ret)
    };
    // The body's stack is allocated here rather than left to `Coroutine::new` so
    // that its size is ours to choose and, above all, so its `limit()` is known:
    // that address is what `stack_exhausted` must compare against while the body
    // runs, since a coroutine does NOT run on the thread stack pthread reports.
    // A refused reservation still yields a working generator on corosensei's own
    // 1 MiB default, with a floor derived on entry instead.
    let (coro, floor) = match corosensei::stack::DefaultStack::new(CORO_STACK_SIZE) {
        Ok(stack) => {
            let floor = coro_stack_floor(&stack);
            (corosensei::Coroutine::with_stack(stack, body), floor)
        }
        Err(_) => (corosensei::Coroutine::new(body), 0),
    };
    with_host(|h| {
        h.generators[id as usize].coro = Some(coro);
        h.generators[id as usize].stack_floor = floor;
    });
    with_host(|h| h.alloc(JsObj::Generator { id }))
}

/// `yield v` — suspend the running generator, handing `v` to the resumer; returns
/// the value the next `gen_resume(x)` supplies (a `.next(x)` argument).
pub fn gen_yield(v: Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
    let id = match CUR_GEN.with(|c| c.get()) {
        Some(id) => id,
        None => return Err(type_error("yield outside a generator")),
    };
    let yp = with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].yielder);
    // SAFETY: same-thread coroutine; the yielder lives for the whole body, and we
    // only reach here from inside that body (its stack is live).
    let yielder = unsafe { &*(yp as *const corosensei::Yielder<Value, Value>) };
    let sent = yielder.suspend(v);
    // On resume, a `.return(v)`/`.throw(e)` may have queued a forced completion:
    // convert it into a Return signal / thrown value so the body unwinds and any
    // `finally` runs, exactly as a source-level `return`/`throw` would.
    if let Some(inj) = with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].inject.take()) {
        match inj {
            GenInject::Return(rv) => {
                with_host(|h| h.signal = Some(Signal::Return(rv)));
                return Ok(Value::Undef);
            }
            GenInject::Throw(ev) => {
                let msg = with_host(|h| crate::builtins::error_string(h, &ev));
                with_host(|h| h.exc = Some(ev));
                return Err(msg);
            }
        }
    }
    Ok(sent)
}

/// `generator.return(v)`: force the generator to complete, running any pending
/// `finally`. If it is already done (or never started) it just reports
/// `{value:v, done:true}` without executing the body.
pub fn gen_return(gen: &Value, v: Value) -> Result<GenStep, String> {
    let id = match with_host(|h| h.get(gen).cloned()) {
        Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) => id,
        _ => return Err(type_error("not a generator")),
    };
    // Not started yet (coro present, ctx never resumed) OR already done → no body
    // to unwind: complete immediately with the supplied value.
    let started = with_host(|h| h.gen_started(id));
    if with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].done) || !started {
        with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].done = true);
        return Ok(GenStep::Done(v));
    }
    with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].inject = Some(GenInject::Return(v)));
    gen_resume(gen, Value::Undef)
}

/// `generator.throw(e)`: inject a throw at the suspension point, running any
/// pending `finally` and letting an enclosing `try/catch` in the body handle it.
pub fn gen_throw(gen: &Value, e: Value) -> Result<GenStep, String> {
    let id = match with_host(|h| h.get(gen).cloned()) {
        Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) => id,
        _ => return Err(type_error("not a generator")),
    };
    let started = with_host(|h| h.gen_started(id));
    if with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].done) || !started {
        // A throw into a done/unstarted generator propagates to the caller.
        with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].done = true);
        let msg = with_host(|h| crate::builtins::error_string(h, &e));
        with_host(|h| h.exc = Some(e));
        return Err(msg);
    }
    with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].inject = Some(GenInject::Throw(e)));
    gen_resume(gen, Value::Undef)
}

/// Outcome of resuming a generator: a yielded value (not done), or the final
/// completion value (done).
pub enum GenStep {
    Yield(Value),
    Done(Value),
}

/// Resume a generator until its next `yield` or its body returns. Preserves the
/// shared host: the coroutine is taken out so the body re-enters `with_host`
/// freely, and the volatile context is swapped so the caller's frames/signal
/// survive the switch.
pub fn gen_resume(gen: &Value, send: Value) -> Result<GenStep, String> {
    let id = match with_host(|h| h.get(gen).cloned()) {
        Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) => id,
        _ => return Err(type_error("not a generator")),
    };
    if with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].done) {
        return Ok(GenStep::Done(Value::Undef));
    }
    let mut coro = match with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].coro.take()) {
        Some(c) => c,
        None => return Err("TypeError: generator already executing".into()),
    };
    with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].started = true);
    let gen_ctx = with_host(|h| std::mem::take(&mut h.generators[id as usize].ctx));
    let caller_ctx = with_host(|h| h.install_gen_ctx(gen_ctx));
    let prev = CUR_GEN.with(|c| c.replace(Some(id)));
    // The body runs on the coroutine's OWN stack, so the guard's floor has to
    // move with it and move back on suspend — generators nest, and a resume from
    // inside another generator must restore that one's floor, not the thread's.
    let coro_floor = with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].stack_floor);
    let caller_floor = swap_stack_floor(coro_floor);

    let out = coro.resume(send); // no host borrow held; body drives its own VM

    let measured = swap_stack_floor(caller_floor);
    // A coroutine on corosensei's default stack has no known bounds, so the
    // floor it measured for itself on first entry is kept for later resumes.
    if coro_floor == 0 && measured != 0 {
        with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].stack_floor = measured);
    }
    CUR_GEN.with(|c| c.set(prev));
    let mut gen_ctx = with_host(|h| h.install_gen_ctx(caller_ctx));
    // A `throw` inside the body left the thrown VALUE in the generator's context,
    // which the swap above just stashed away. Hand it to the caller so the
    // rejection/catch keeps the original error object instead of a string rebuild.
    let thrown = gen_ctx.exc.take();
    with_host(|h| {
        if let Some(v) = thrown {
            h.exc = Some(v);
        }
        h.generators[id as usize].ctx = gen_ctx;
        h.generators[id as usize].coro = Some(coro);
    });

    match out {
        corosensei::CoroutineResult::Yield(y) => Ok(GenStep::Yield(y)),
        corosensei::CoroutineResult::Return(r) => {
            // Release the coroutine — and with it the mmap'd stack it owns —
            // the moment the body completes. `h.generators` only ever grows (an
            // id is never reused), so a program that awaits in a loop otherwise
            // accumulates one whole [`CORO_STACK_SIZE`] reservation per call for
            // the life of the process. A finished generator is never resumed:
            // `gen_resume` returns `Done` on the `done` flag before it looks.
            with_host(|h| {
                let g = &mut h.generators[id as usize];
                g.done = true;
                g.coro = None;
            });
            match r {
                Ok(v) => Ok(GenStep::Done(v)),
                Err(e) => Err(e),
            }
        }
    }
}

/// Force a generator to completion (used by `.return()` and abandoned loops):
/// marks it done without running further.
pub fn gen_close(gen: &Value) {
    if let Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) = with_host(|h| h.get(gen).cloned()) {
        with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].done = true);
    }
}

// ── iteration protocol (arrays, strings, Map/Set, generators, Symbol.iterator) ─

/// Convert a Map/Set key value into a `MapKey` under SameValueZero.
pub fn map_key(h: &JsHost, v: &Value) -> MapKey {
    match v {
        Value::Undef => MapKey::Undef,
        Value::Bool(b) => MapKey::Bool(*b),
        Value::Int(n) => MapKey::Num(norm_num_bits(*n as f64)),
        Value::Float(f) => MapKey::Num(norm_num_bits(*f)),
        Value::Str(s) => MapKey::Str((**s).clone()),
        Value::Obj(i) => match h.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Str(s)) => MapKey::Str(s.clone()),
            Some(JsObj::Null) => MapKey::Null,
            Some(JsObj::BigInt(b)) => MapKey::Big(b.to_string()),
            _ => MapKey::Ref(*i),
        },
        _ => MapKey::Undef,
    }
}

/// Canonical bit pattern for a Map/Set numeric key: `NaN` → one value, `-0` → `+0`.
fn norm_num_bits(f: f64) -> u64 {
    if f.is_nan() {
        return f64::NAN.to_bits();
    }
    if f == 0.0 {
        return 0.0f64.to_bits(); // fold -0 into +0
    }
    f.to_bits()
}

/// Fully materialize any iterable into a vector of values.
pub fn iter_all(v: &Value) -> Result<Vec<Value>, String> {
    // A Proxy iterates through its traps (see `crate::proxy::iterate`); it has
    // no heap variant `iter_vec` could recognise.
    if let Some(items) = crate::proxy::iterate(v)? {
        return Ok(items);
    }
    // Generators / user iterators must resume without a live host borrow.
    if with_host(|h| h.is_generator_val(v)) {
        let mut out = Vec::new();
        while let GenStep::Yield(x) = gen_resume(v, Value::Undef)? {
            out.push(x);
        }
        return Ok(out);
    }
    // Object with a user-defined Symbol.iterator: drive its iterator protocol.
    if let Some(iter_fn) = user_iterator_fn(v) {
        let iterator = invoke(&iter_fn, Vec::new(), Some(v.clone()))?;
        return drain_iterator(&iterator);
    }
    with_host(|h| h.iter_vec(v))
}

// ── async iteration (`for await (… of …)`) ───────────────────────────────────

/// Obtain an async iterator for `for await`. If `src` has a `Symbol.asyncIterator`
/// method, use it (its `.next()` returns a promise of `{value, done}`); otherwise
/// fall back to the sync iterable, materialized into a `JsObj::Iter` whose values
/// are awaited one at a time by `async_step`.
pub fn get_async_iterator(src: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
    if let Some(f) = user_async_iterator_fn(src) {
        return invoke(&f, Vec::new(), Some(src.clone()));
    }
    // An `async function*` object IS its own async iterator; draining it into a
    // list here would run the whole body (and any `finally`) before the consumer
    // sees the first value.
    if let Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) = with_host(|h| h.get(src).cloned()) {
        if with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].async_gen) {
            return Ok(src.clone());
        }
    }
    let items = iter_all(src)?;
    Ok(with_host(|h| h.alloc(JsObj::Iter { items, idx: 0 })))
}

/// If `v` has an own/inherited `Symbol.asyncIterator` method, return it.
fn user_async_iterator_fn(v: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
    let is_plain = with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(v), Some(JsObj::Object(_))));
    if !is_plain {
        return None;
    }
    let f = with_host(|h| lookup_chain(h, v, "@@asyncIterator"));
    match f {
        Some(f) if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) => Some(f),
        _ => None,
    }
}

/// One step of a `for await` loop: return a Promise that settles to a
/// `{value, done}` record. For a native async iterator this is `iter.next()`
/// (already a promise of the record). For the sync fallback it pops the next raw
/// value, awaits it, and packages `{value: resolved, done:false}` (or
/// `{done:true}` at exhaustion).
pub fn async_step(iterator: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
    // An `async function*` object: resume it through the await-aware driver.
    if let Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) = with_host(|h| h.get(iterator).cloned()) {
        if with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].async_gen) {
            return Ok(async_gen_step(iterator, Value::Undef));
        }
    }
    // Sync-fallback iterator: drive it here, awaiting each yielded value.
    if let Some(JsObj::Iter { items, idx }) = with_host(|h| h.get(iterator).cloned()) {
        if idx >= items.len() {
            // `AsyncFromSyncIteratorContinuation` resolves the record THROUGH a
            // promise even at exhaustion, so the `done: true` step costs the same
            // two microtask ticks a value step does.
            let step = with_host(|h| h.new_promise());
            let sid = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&step).unwrap());
            with_host(|h| {
                h.queue_micro_native(Box::new(move || {
                    resolve_promise_val(sid, iter_record(Value::Undef, true));
                    Ok(())
                }))
            });
            return Ok(step);
        }
        let raw = items[idx].clone();
        with_host(|h| {
            if let Some(JsObj::Iter { idx, .. }) = h.get_mut(iterator) {
                *idx += 1;
            }
        });
        // Await the raw value (adopts a promise's resolution), then wrap.
        let step = with_host(|h| h.new_promise());
        let sid = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&step).unwrap());
        let raw_p = promise_of(&raw);
        let raw_id = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&raw_p).unwrap());
        subscribe_native(
            raw_id,
            Box::new(move |state, val| {
                if state == PromiseState::Rejected {
                    reject_promise_val(sid, val);
                } else {
                    resolve_promise_val(sid, iter_record(val, false));
                }
                Ok(())
            }),
        );
        return Ok(step);
    }
    // Native async iterator: `iter.next()` returns the {value,done} promise.
    let r = call_method(iterator, "next", Vec::new())?;
    Ok(promise_of(&r))
}

/// If `v` has an own/inherited `Symbol.iterator` method (internal key
/// `@@iterator`), return it. Arrays/strings use the native fast path instead.
fn user_iterator_fn(v: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
    let is_plain = with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(v), Some(JsObj::Object(_))));
    if !is_plain {
        return None;
    }
    // Full property resolution, not a stored-property lookup: a NATIVE-tagged
    // object (`URLSearchParams`, `Headers`) dispatches its methods through the
    // stdlib method table rather than a property map, so `lookup_chain` reported
    // no `Symbol.iterator` for one even though reading it gave a function —
    // `[...new URLSearchParams('a=1')]` threw `{} is not iterable`.
    let f = crate::builtins::get_property(v, "@@iterator").ok()?;
    with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)).then_some(f)
}

/// Drive an iterator object (one with a `.next()` returning `{value, done}`) to
/// exhaustion.
pub(crate) fn drain_iterator(iterator: &Value) -> Result<Vec<Value>, String> {
    let mut out = Vec::new();
    loop {
        let step = call_method(iterator, "next", Vec::new())?;
        let done = get_prop_chain(&step, "done")?;
        if with_host(|h| h.truthy(&done)) {
            break;
        }
        out.push(get_prop_chain(&step, "value")?);
    }
    Ok(out)
}

/// Property read that walks the prototype chain (used by iteration helpers).
pub fn get_prop_chain(recv: &Value, name: &str) -> Result<Value, String> {
    crate::builtins::get_property(recv, name)
}

/// Whether `v` is an ECMAScript primitive, i.e. `ToPrimitive` is the identity
/// on it. `undefined`, `null`, booleans, numbers, strings, symbols and bigints
/// qualify; every other heap cell (objects, arrays, functions, `Map`/`Set`,
/// native-tagged instances) is an object and must be converted.
pub fn is_primitive(h: &JsHost, v: &Value) -> bool {
    match v {
        Value::Obj(_) => matches!(
            h.get(v),
            None | Some(JsObj::Null)
                | Some(JsObj::Str(_))
                | Some(JsObj::Symbol { .. })
                | Some(JsObj::BigInt(_))
        ),
        _ => true,
    }
}

/// `ToPrimitive(v, hint)` — ECMA-262 7.1.1. `hint` is `"default"`, `"number"`
/// or `"string"`.
///
/// An object carrying a `Symbol.toPrimitive` method (internal key
/// `@@toPrimitive`) has it called with the hint and must return a primitive.
/// Otherwise `OrdinaryToPrimitive` (7.1.1.1) tries `valueOf` then `toString` —
/// the order reversed for the string hint — and takes the FIRST call whose
/// result is a primitive. An object that yields no primitive (a null-prototype
/// object has neither method) throws V8's
/// `TypeError: Cannot convert object to primitive value`.
///
/// This is the conversion behind `+`, `-`/`*`/`/`/`%`/`**`, the relational
/// operators, `==` against a primitive, and `ToPropertyKey` — all of which used
/// to read `str_of` directly and so never invoked a user `valueOf`.
pub fn to_primitive(v: &Value, hint: &str) -> Result<Value, String> {
    if with_host(|h| is_primitive(h, v)) {
        return Ok(v.clone());
    }
    if let Some(f) = with_host(|h| lookup_chain(h, v, "@@toPrimitive")) {
        if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
            let hv = with_host(|h| h.new_str(hint.to_string()));
            let r = invoke(&f, vec![hv], Some(v.clone()))?;
            if with_host(|h| is_primitive(h, &r)) {
                return Ok(r);
            }
            return Err(type_error("Cannot convert object to primitive value"));
        }
    }
    // `Date.prototype[@@toPrimitive]` (21.4.4.45) treats the DEFAULT hint as
    // `"string"`, which is why `new Date() + 1` concatenates while
    // `new Date() - 1` is arithmetic.
    let hint = if hint == "default" && crate::stdlib::native_tag(v).as_deref() == Some("Date") {
        "string"
    } else {
        hint
    };
    let order = if hint == "string" {
        ["toString", "valueOf"]
    } else {
        ["valueOf", "toString"]
    };
    for m in order {
        let f = crate::builtins::get_property(v, m).unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
        if !with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &f)) {
            continue;
        }
        // On a Proxy the resolved method is a thunk bound to the TARGET, so
        // invoking it directly would stringify the target — `String(new
        // Proxy(function f(){}, {}))` reported `f`'s source where V8 reports the
        // native-code form. `call_method` re-dispatches the generic
        // `Function.prototype`/`Object.prototype` methods against the proxy.
        let r = if with_host(|h| h.kind_of(v)) == Some(ObjKind::Proxy) {
            call_method(v, m, Vec::new())?
        } else {
            invoke(&f, Vec::new(), Some(v.clone()))?
        };
        if with_host(|h| is_primitive(h, &r)) {
            return Ok(r);
        }
    }
    // Every object except a null-prototype one inherits `Object.prototype
    // .toString`, which always returns a string — so the exhausted-methods
    // TypeError is reachable only there. The exotics whose property funnel has
    // no `toString` entry of its own (`Map`, `Set`, `Promise`, …) land here and
    // get the same `[object Tag]` brand V8 gives them.
    if !with_host(|h| h.has_null_proto(v)) {
        return crate::builtins::proto_method(v, "Object:toString", Vec::new());
    }
    Err(type_error("Cannot convert object to primitive value"))
}

/// `ToString(v)` with `ToPrimitive` method dispatch: an object is converted
/// with the string hint (so a user `toString` — or `valueOf`, if `toString`
/// is absent or returns an object — is invoked), then rendered by `str_of`.
/// Returns a heap string value.
pub fn to_string_value(v: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
    let p = to_primitive(v, "string")?;
    // `ToString(symbol)` throws (7.1.17 step 2) — the ONLY conversion a symbol
    // refuses. `String(sym)` is the documented exception and is handled at that
    // call site, not here, so every implicit coercion (`sym + ''`, `` `${sym}` ``,
    // `[sym].join()`) rejects the way node does instead of silently rendering
    // `Symbol(desc)`.
    if with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(&p), Some(JsObj::Symbol { .. }))) {
        return Err(type_error("Cannot convert a Symbol value to a string"));
    }
    Ok(with_host(|h| {
        let s = h.str_of(&p);
        h.new_str(s)
    }))
}

/// `String(v)` — 22.1.1.1. Identical to [`to_string_value`] except that a
/// SYMBOL argument is allowed and renders as `Symbol(desc)` (step 2a).
pub fn string_ctor_value(v: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
    if with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(v), Some(JsObj::Symbol { .. }))) {
        return Ok(with_host(|h| {
            let s = h.str_of(v);
            h.new_str(s)
        }));
    }
    to_string_value(v)
}

/// `ToNumber(v)` — ECMA-262 7.1.4 — with the object case going through
/// `ToPrimitive(v, number)` first, so `+{ valueOf() { return 7 } }` is `7` and
/// `+new Date(0)` is `0`. `JsHost::to_number` alone cannot do this: it runs
/// under the host borrow and so can never invoke a JS `valueOf`.
pub fn to_number_value(v: &Value) -> Result<f64, String> {
    // `ToNumber(symbol)` throws (7.1.4 step 2). It is primitive, so without this
    // it fell into `to_number` and quietly produced `NaN` — `Number(Symbol())`
    // and `+Symbol()` are both `TypeError` on node v26.7.0.
    if with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(v), Some(JsObj::Symbol { .. }))) {
        return Err(type_error("Cannot convert a Symbol value to a number"));
    }
    if let Some(n) = with_host(|h| is_primitive(h, v).then(|| h.to_number(v))) {
        return Ok(n);
    }
    let p = to_primitive(v, "number")?;
    Ok(with_host(|h| h.to_number(&p)))
}

/// `ToPropertyKey(v)` — ECMA-262 7.1.19. A symbol keeps its stable internal
/// key; anything else is `ToPrimitive(v, string)` then `ToString`, so
/// `obj[{ toString() { return 'k' } }]` really reads `obj.k`.
pub fn to_property_key(v: &Value) -> Result<String, String> {
    // One borrow for the overwhelmingly common primitive key (`a[i]`, `o[s]`,
    // `o[sym]`); only an object key pays for the conversion.
    if let Some(k) = with_host(|h| is_primitive(h, v).then(|| h.property_key(v))) {
        return Ok(k);
    }
    let p = to_primitive(v, "string")?;
    Ok(with_host(|h| h.str_of(&p)))
}

/// Whether `h.get(v)` is any callable kind. A Proxy is callable exactly when its
/// target is (10.5: the `[[Call]]` slot is installed only for a callable
/// target), so `typeof` and every `is_callable` guard agree on one answer.
pub fn is_callable(h: &JsHost, v: &Value) -> bool {
    match h.get(v) {
        Some(JsObj::Func(_))
        | Some(JsObj::Builtin(_))
        | Some(JsObj::BoundMethod { .. })
        | Some(JsObj::BoundFunc { .. })
        | Some(JsObj::Class(_)) => true,
        Some(JsObj::Proxy { target, .. }) => is_callable(h, target),
        _ => false,
    }
}

/// Walk `recv`'s own props then its prototype chain for `key`, returning the
/// stored value (methods, inherited data props). Does NOT invoke accessors.
pub fn lookup_chain(h: &JsHost, recv: &Value, key: &str) -> Option<Value> {
    if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = h.get(recv) {
        if let Some(v) = p.get(key) {
            return Some(v.clone());
        }
    }
    let mut cur = h.proto_of(recv);
    while let Some(p) = cur {
        // A chain link may be a plain object OR a function/class (the `router`
        // package sets `Router.prototype = function(){}` and hangs its methods off
        // that function, so the methods live in the fn-prop side table).
        match h.get(&p) {
            Some(JsObj::Object(props)) => {
                if let Some(v) = props.get(key) {
                    return Some(v.clone());
                }
            }
            Some(JsObj::Func(_)) | Some(JsObj::Class(_)) => {
                if let Some(v) = h.fn_prop(&p, key) {
                    return Some(v);
                }
            }
            _ => {}
        }
        cur = h.proto_of(&p);
    }
    None
}

/// Find a getter/setter accessor for `key` on `recv` or up its prototype chain.
pub fn lookup_accessor(
    h: &JsHost,
    recv: &Value,
    key: &str,
) -> Option<(Option<Value>, Option<Value>)> {
    if let Some(a) = h.own_accessor(recv, key) {
        return Some(a);
    }
    let mut cur = h.proto_of(recv);
    while let Some(p) = cur {
        if let Some(a) = h.own_accessor(&p, key) {
            return Some(a);
        }
        cur = h.proto_of(&p);
    }
    None
}

/// Register a builtin error prototype (for `instanceof Error` etc.).
pub fn set_error_proto(name: &str, proto: Value) {
    with_host(|h| {
        h.error_protos.insert(name.to_string(), proto);
    });
}
pub fn error_proto(name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
    with_host(|h| h.error_protos.get(name).cloned())
}
/// Error prototype lookup with a borrowed host (used inside a `with_host` block).
pub fn error_proto_of(h: &JsHost, name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
    h.error_protos.get(name).cloned()
}

impl JsHost {
    /// `Error.prototype.toString` for an object whose prototype chain reaches
    /// `Error.prototype`: `"Name"` with an empty message, else `"Name: message"`.
    /// `None` for anything that is not an error, so the caller keeps its own
    /// stringification.
    pub fn error_to_string(&self, v: &Value) -> Option<String> {
        let base = self.error_protos.get("Error")?;
        let mut cur = self.proto_of(v);
        let mut is_error = false;
        while let Some(p) = cur {
            if self.strict_eq(&p, base) {
                is_error = true;
                break;
            }
            cur = self.proto_of(&p);
        }
        if !is_error {
            return None;
        }
        let name = lookup_chain(self, v, "name")
            .map(|n| self.str_of(&n))
            .unwrap_or_else(|| "Error".into());
        let message = lookup_chain(self, v, "message")
            .map(|m| self.str_of(&m))
            .unwrap_or_default();
        // Node's internal coded errors override `toString` as
        // `${name} [${code}]: ${message}` (internal/errors.js NodeError). The
        // `@@nodeError` tag marks the errors `synth_error` built from a
        // `Name [ERR_CODE]: …` string, so a user error that merely has a `.code`
        // property still stringifies plainly.
        if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = self.get(v) {
            if p.contains_key("@@nodeError") {
                if let Some(code) = p.get("code").map(|c| self.str_of(c)) {
                    return Some(format!("{name} [{code}]: {message}"));
                }
            }
        }
        Some(match (name.is_empty(), message.is_empty()) {
            (true, _) => message,
            (false, true) => name,
            (false, false) => format!("{name}: {message}"),
        })
    }
}

/// The set of builtin error constructor names forming the error hierarchy.
pub const ERROR_NAMES: &[&str] = &[
    "Error",
    "TypeError",
    "RangeError",
    "SyntaxError",
    "ReferenceError",
    "EvalError",
    "URIError",
    "AggregateError",
    // `assert`'s error class. It is NOT a global (node exposes it only as
    // `assert.AssertionError`, and `GLOBAL_FUNCS` is a separate table), but it
    // has to be a name `synth_error` recognizes: without it the head
    // `AssertionError [ERR_ASSERTION]: …` failed the class check and fell into
    // the `Error` branch with the WHOLE head kept as the message, so `e.name`
    // was `Error` and `e.message` carried a prefix node keeps out of it.
    "AssertionError",
];

impl JsHost {
    /// Lazily build the builtin error prototype chain: `Error.prototype →
    /// Object.prototype`, and every specific error's prototype → `Error.prototype`.
    /// Populated once; instances link to these so `e instanceof TypeError` and
    /// `e instanceof Error` both hold.
    /// The real `Buffer.prototype` object, building the
    /// `Buffer.prototype → Uint8Array.prototype → Object.prototype` chain on
    /// first use.
    ///
    /// A `Buffer` used to be a bare tagged object with no `[[Prototype]]` at
    /// all, so `Object.getPrototypeOf(buf) === Buffer.prototype` read false and
    /// `instanceof` had to be special-cased around it. Each prototype is a
    /// genuine object carrying `@proto:<Ctor>:<method>` thunks for its instance
    /// methods, so `Buffer.prototype.slice.call(buf, 1)` still dispatches the
    /// way it did when `Buffer.prototype` was a `Builtin` namespace.
    pub fn ensure_native_protos(&mut self) {
        if self.native_protos.contains_key("Buffer") {
            return;
        }
        let obj_proto = self.object_proto();
        // `Object.prototype` is the one builtin prototype that already existed as
        // a real object (it is the chain root). Register it so `Object.prototype`
        // reads resolve to THAT object rather than a fresh `Builtin` namespace —
        // otherwise `Object.getPrototypeOf(C.prototype) === Object.prototype`
        // compares a real object against a thunk and reads false.
        self.native_protos
            .insert("Object".to_string(), obj_proto.clone());
        for m in crate::builtins::OBJECT_PROTO_METHODS {
            let thunk = self.alloc(JsObj::Builtin(format!("@proto:Object:{m}")));
            if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = self.get_mut(&obj_proto) {
                p.insert((*m).to_string(), thunk);
            }
            self.hide_prop(&obj_proto, m);
        }
        // `Buffer.prototype → Uint8Array.prototype → %TypedArray%.prototype →
        // Object.prototype`, which is the chain node v26.7.0 really has. The
        // shared iteration methods (`every`, `map`, `filter`, …) live on the
        // `%TypedArray%.prototype` intermediate, NOT on `Uint8Array.prototype`:
        // measured, `Uint8Array.prototype.hasOwnProperty('every')` is false in
        // Node while the intermediate owns it. `%TypedArray%` is not a global,
        // so it is reachable only by walking the chain — exactly as in Node.
        // Every element kind gets its own prototype hanging off the shared
        // intermediate, so `Object.getPrototypeOf(new Int32Array(1))` is
        // `Int32Array.prototype` rather than some other kind's. Linking them all
        // to `Uint8Array.prototype` would have been the easy version and would
        // have made an `Int32Array` claim the wrong prototype.
        let mut chain: Vec<(&str, Value)> = vec![("TypedArray", obj_proto)];
        for kind in crate::stdlib::typedarray::ELEMENT_KINDS {
            chain.push((kind, Value::Undef)); // parent: %TypedArray%.prototype
        }
        // `Buffer.prototype`'s parent is `Uint8Array.prototype` specifically.
        chain.push(("Buffer", Value::Undef));
        let mut prev: Option<Value> = None;
        for (ctor, parent) in chain.drain(..) {
            let proto = self.new_object(IndexMap::new());
            // Each kind hangs off the shared intermediate; `Buffer` hangs off
            // `Uint8Array.prototype`; the intermediate itself off
            // `Object.prototype`.
            let parent = match ctor {
                "TypedArray" => parent,
                "Buffer" => self
                    .native_protos
                    .get("Uint8Array")
                    .cloned()
                    .unwrap_or_else(|| prev.clone().expect("intermediate built first")),
                _ => self
                    .native_protos
                    .get("TypedArray")
                    .cloned()
                    .unwrap_or_else(|| prev.clone().expect("intermediate built first")),
            };
            self.set_proto(&proto, parent);
            // `%TypedArray%.prototype` has no reachable constructor global, so
            // it gets no `constructor` slot (Node's is the anonymous
            // `%TypedArray%` intrinsic).
            if ctor != "TypedArray" {
                let ctor_val = self.alloc(JsObj::Builtin(ctor.to_string()));
                if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = self.get_mut(&proto) {
                    p.insert("constructor".into(), ctor_val);
                }
                self.hide_prop(&proto, "constructor");
            }
            let methods: &[&str] = match ctor {
                "Buffer" => crate::stdlib::buffer::INSTANCE_METHODS,
                "TypedArray" => crate::stdlib::typedarray::PROTOTYPE_METHODS,
                // A kind's prototype owns no methods; it inherits them from the
                // intermediate above. It does own `BYTES_PER_ELEMENT`, which is
                // per-kind and which Node really keeps there (measured:
                // `Uint8Array.prototype.hasOwnProperty('BYTES_PER_ELEMENT')`).
                _ => &[],
            };
            if crate::stdlib::typedarray::ELEMENT_KINDS.contains(&ctor) {
                let bpe = Value::Float(crate::stdlib::typedarray::bytes_per_element(ctor) as f64);
                if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = self.get_mut(&proto) {
                    p.insert("BYTES_PER_ELEMENT".into(), bpe);
                }
                self.hide_prop(&proto, "BYTES_PER_ELEMENT");
            }
            for m in methods {
                let thunk = self.alloc(JsObj::Builtin(format!("@proto:{ctor}:{m}")));
                if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = self.get_mut(&proto) {
                    p.insert((*m).to_string(), thunk);
                }
                self.hide_prop(&proto, m);
            }
            self.native_protos.insert(ctor.to_string(), proto.clone());
            prev = Some(proto);
        }
    }

    /// The real prototype object for a builtin exotic, if it has one.
    pub fn native_proto(&self, ctor: &str) -> Option<Value> {
        self.native_protos.get(ctor).cloned()
    }

    /// The real `.prototype` object for a native stdlib constructor (`StringDecoder`,
    /// `Hash`, `URLSearchParams`, …), built on first read and cached.
    ///
    /// `Ctor.prototype` used to read `undefined` for every native class outside the
    /// hand-written `is_builtin_ctor` list, which broke the ES5 subclassing pattern
    /// that libraries still use. `iconv-lite`'s internal codec — reached from
    /// `raw-body` on every `express.json()` request — does exactly this:
    ///
    /// ```text
    /// var StringDecoder = require('string_decoder').StringDecoder;
    /// if (!StringDecoder.prototype.end) StringDecoder.prototype.end = function () {};
    /// function InternalDecoder(options, codec) { StringDecoder.call(this, codec.enc); }
    /// InternalDecoder.prototype = StringDecoder.prototype;
    /// ```
    ///
    /// The first line threw `Cannot read properties of undefined (reading 'end')`.
    ///
    /// Methods come from `stdlib::instance_method_lists`, the same table a method
    /// READ consults, so the prototype can never advertise a name the dispatcher
    /// does not implement. Each is the `@proto:<Ctor>:<method>` thunk that
    /// dispatches against its invoke-time `this`, so a subclass instance whose
    /// prototype IS this object gets the native implementation. Returns `None` for
    /// a tag with no instance methods, leaving those constructors as they were.
    pub fn ensure_ctor_proto(&mut self, ctor: &str) -> Option<Value> {
        if let Some(p) = self.native_protos.get(ctor) {
            return Some(p.clone());
        }
        let (own, emitter) = crate::stdlib::instance_method_lists(ctor);
        if own.is_empty() && emitter.is_empty() {
            return None;
        }
        let obj_proto = self.object_proto();
        let proto = self.new_object(IndexMap::new());
        self.set_proto(&proto, obj_proto);
        let ctor_val = self.alloc(JsObj::Builtin(ctor.to_string()));
        if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = self.get_mut(&proto) {
            p.insert("constructor".into(), ctor_val);
        }
        self.hide_prop(&proto, "constructor");
        for m in own.iter().chain(emitter.iter()) {
            let thunk = self.alloc(JsObj::Builtin(format!("@proto:{ctor}:{m}")));
            if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = self.get_mut(&proto) {
                p.insert((*m).to_string(), thunk);
            }
            self.hide_prop(&proto, m);
        }
        self.native_protos.insert(ctor.to_string(), proto.clone());
        Some(proto)
    }

    pub fn ensure_error_protos(&mut self) {
        if !self.error_protos.is_empty() {
            return;
        }
        let obj_proto = self.object_proto();
        // Error.prototype first (the shared base).
        let err_proto = self.new_object(IndexMap::new());
        self.set_proto(&err_proto, obj_proto);
        let nm = self.new_str("Error");
        let empty = self.new_str("");
        let ctor = self.alloc(JsObj::Builtin("Error".into()));
        // `Error.prototype.toString` (20.5.3.4) has to be an OWN property here,
        // not a fallback the stringifier applies when nothing else matches: it
        // exists precisely to shadow `Object.prototype.toString`. Without it,
        // the first read of `Error.prototype` or `Object.prototype` — which
        // `x instanceof Error` performs, so ordinary code triggers it —
        // materialised `Object.prototype.toString`, the chain lookup started
        // finding it, and `String(err)` flipped from `Error: m` to
        // `[object Error]` for the REST OF THE PROCESS, including errors
        // created before the read.
        let to_string = self.alloc(JsObj::Builtin("@proto:Error:toString".into()));
        if let Some(JsObj::Object(p)) = self.get_mut(&err_proto) {
            p.insert("name".into(), nm);
            p.insert("message".into(), empty);
            p.insert("constructor".into(), ctor);
            p.insert("toString".into(), to_string);
        }
        // Everything on `Error.prototype` is non-enumerable in V8.
        for k in ["name", "message", "constructor", "toString"] {
            self.hide_prop(&err_proto, k);
        }
        self.error_protos.insert("Error".into(), err_proto.clone());
        for name in &ERROR_NAMES[1..] {
            let p = self.new_object(IndexMap::new());
            self.set_proto(&p, err_proto.clone());
            let nm = self.new_str(*name);
            let ctor = self.alloc(JsObj::Builtin((*name).to_string()));
            if let Some(JsObj::Object(o)) = self.get_mut(&p) {
                o.insert("name".into(), nm);
                o.insert("constructor".into(), ctor);
            }
            self.hide_prop(&p, "name");
            self.hide_prop(&p, "constructor");
            self.error_protos.insert((*name).to_string(), p);
        }
    }
}

// ── Map/Set element access (used by builtins) ────────────────────────────────

impl JsHost {
    /// A function's `.length`: the count of leading params before the first one
    /// with a default or the rest element.
    pub fn func_arity(&self, v: &Value) -> usize {
        let def_id = match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Func(f)) => Some(f.def_id),
            Some(JsObj::Class(c)) => match c.ctor.as_ref().and_then(|cf| self.get(cf)) {
                Some(JsObj::Func(f)) => Some(f.def_id),
                _ => None,
            },
            _ => None,
        };
        match def_id.and_then(|id| self.funcs.get(id)) {
            Some(def) => def
                .params
                .iter()
                .take_while(|p| !p.rest && !p.has_default)
                .count(),
            None => 0,
        }
    }

    pub fn is_map(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        matches!(self.get(v), Some(JsObj::Map { .. }))
    }
    pub fn is_set(&self, v: &Value) -> bool {
        matches!(self.get(v), Some(JsObj::Set { .. }))
    }
}

// ── promises & the event loop ────────────────────────────────────────────────

impl JsHost {
    /// Allocate a fresh pending promise, returning its heap value.
    pub fn new_promise(&mut self) -> Value {
        let id = self.promises.len() as u32;
        self.promises.push(PromiseCell {
            state: PromiseState::Pending,
            value: Value::Undef,
            reactions: Vec::new(),
            handled: false,
        });
        self.alloc(JsObj::Promise { id })
    }
    pub fn promise_id(&self, v: &Value) -> Option<u32> {
        match self.get(v) {
            Some(JsObj::Promise { id }) => Some(*id),
            _ => None,
        }
    }
    pub fn promise_state(&self, id: u32) -> PromiseState {
        self.promises[id as usize].state
    }
    pub fn promise_value(&self, id: u32) -> Value {
        self.promises[id as usize].value.clone()
    }
    pub fn promise_mark_handled(&mut self, id: u32) {
        self.promises[id as usize].handled = true;
    }
    /// Take the pending reactions of a promise (called on settle).
    pub fn take_reactions(&mut self, id: u32) -> Vec<PromiseReaction> {
        std::mem::take(&mut self.promises[id as usize].reactions)
    }
    pub fn add_reaction(&mut self, id: u32, r: PromiseReaction) {
        self.promises[id as usize].reactions.push(r);
    }
    pub fn settle_promise(&mut self, id: u32, state: PromiseState, value: Value) {
        let c = &mut self.promises[id as usize];
        if c.state != PromiseState::Pending {
            return; // already settled — resolve/reject are one-shot
        }
        c.state = state;
        c.value = value;
    }
    pub fn queue_micro(&mut self, cb: Value, args: Vec<Value>) {
        self.microtasks.push_back(Task::Js { cb, args });
    }
    pub fn queue_nexttick(&mut self, cb: Value, args: Vec<Value>) {
        self.nextticks.push_back(Task::Js { cb, args });
    }
    /// Schedule a native (Rust) microtask — used by Promise reactions and async
    /// resumption.
    pub fn queue_micro_native(&mut self, f: Box<dyn FnOnce() -> Result<(), String>>) {
        self.microtasks.push_back(Task::Native(f));
    }
    /// Schedule a macrotask. `interval` is the repeat period for `setInterval`
    /// (`None` for the one-shot `setTimeout`/`setImmediate`). Returns the timer
    /// id, which the `Timeout`/`Immediate` handle object carries so `clear*`,
    /// `ref`/`unref` and `refresh` can find this entry again.
    pub fn add_timer(
        &mut self,
        delay: f64,
        callback: Value,
        args: Vec<Value>,
        interval: Option<f64>,
    ) -> u64 {
        let id = self.next_timer;
        self.next_timer += 1;
        // Real deadline for the real-clock path; `setImmediate` (delay < 0) is
        // clamped to "now". Virtual-clock ordering still uses `delay`/`seq`.
        let deadline = Instant::now() + Duration::from_millis(delay.max(0.0) as u64);
        self.macrotasks.push(Timer {
            id,
            delay,
            seq: id,
            callback,
            args,
            cancelled: false,
            interval,
            refed: true,
            deadline,
        });
        id
    }
    /// Re-arm a repeating timer that is about to fire, keeping its id (so a
    /// `clearInterval` from *inside* the callback cancels this very entry) and
    /// taking a fresh `seq` so same-delay peers still round-robin.
    ///
    /// Called BEFORE the callback runs: if it were called after, the entry would
    /// be absent while the callback executed and a `clearInterval(t)` there would
    /// cancel nothing, resurrecting an interval the program had stopped.
    fn rearm_timer(&mut self, t: &Timer, period: f64) {
        let seq = self.next_timer;
        self.next_timer += 1;
        let deadline = Instant::now() + Duration::from_millis(period.max(0.0) as u64);
        self.macrotasks.push(Timer {
            id: t.id,
            delay: t.delay,
            seq,
            callback: t.callback.clone(),
            args: t.args.clone(),
            cancelled: false,
            interval: Some(period),
            refed: t.refed,
            deadline,
        });
    }
    /// `timeout.ref()` / `timeout.unref()` — set the handle bit on a pending
    /// timer. A no-op once the timer has fired or been cleared (Node likewise
    /// treats `ref`/`unref` on a dead timer as inert).
    pub fn set_timer_refed(&mut self, id: u64, refed: bool) {
        for t in &mut self.macrotasks {
            if t.id == id && !t.cancelled {
                t.refed = refed;
            }
        }
    }
    /// `timeout.hasRef()` — whether a still-pending timer holds the loop open.
    /// A fired or cleared timer reports `false`, matching Node.
    pub fn timer_has_ref(&self, id: u64) -> bool {
        self.macrotasks
            .iter()
            .any(|t| t.id == id && !t.cancelled && t.refed)
    }
    /// `timeout.refresh()` — restart the countdown from now, as if the timer had
    /// just been scheduled.
    pub fn refresh_timer(&mut self, id: u64) {
        let now = Instant::now();
        for t in &mut self.macrotasks {
            if t.id == id && !t.cancelled {
                t.deadline = now + Duration::from_millis(t.delay.max(0.0) as u64);
            }
        }
    }
    /// Clone the I/O sender for a background I/O thread.
    pub fn io_sender(&self) -> Sender<IoTask> {
        self.io_tx.clone()
    }
    /// Register a live handle (listener/socket/ref'd resource) keeping the loop
    /// alive.
    pub fn incr_handle(&mut self) {
        self.open_handles += 1;
    }
    /// Release a handle; the loop exits once this reaches `0` with empty queues.
    pub fn decr_handle(&mut self) {
        self.open_handles = self.open_handles.saturating_sub(1);
    }
    pub fn open_handles(&self) -> usize {
        self.open_handles
    }
    /// Pop the earliest timer whose real deadline is at or before `now` (I/O
    /// path). Ties break by `seq`.
    fn pop_due_timer(&mut self, now: Instant) -> Option<Timer> {
        let idx = self
            .macrotasks
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .filter(|(_, t)| !t.cancelled && t.deadline <= now)
            .min_by(|(_, a), (_, b)| a.deadline.cmp(&b.deadline).then(a.seq.cmp(&b.seq)))
            .map(|(i, _)| i);
        idx.map(|i| self.macrotasks.remove(i))
    }
    /// Time until the earliest pending timer's deadline (I/O path blocking bound),
    /// or `None` if no timers are pending. Clamped to `0` for already-due timers.
    fn next_timer_timeout(&self, now: Instant) -> Option<Duration> {
        self.macrotasks
            .iter()
            .filter(|t| !t.cancelled)
            .map(|t| t.deadline)
            .min()
            .map(|d| d.saturating_duration_since(now))
    }
    pub fn cancel_timer(&mut self, id: u64) {
        for t in &mut self.macrotasks {
            if t.id == id {
                t.cancelled = true;
            }
        }
    }
    fn pop_next_timer(&mut self) -> Option<Timer> {
        // Earliest (delay, seq) fires first — a deterministic virtual clock.
        let idx = self
            .macrotasks
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .filter(|(_, t)| !t.cancelled)
            .min_by(|(_, a), (_, b)| {
                a.delay
                    .partial_cmp(&b.delay)
                    .unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
                    .then(a.seq.cmp(&b.seq))
            })
            .map(|(i, _)| i);
        idx.map(|i| self.macrotasks.remove(i))
    }
    fn next_microtask(&mut self) -> Option<Task> {
        // nextTick drains before promise microtasks (Node ordering).
        self.nextticks
            .pop_front()
            .or_else(|| self.microtasks.pop_front())
    }
    fn has_microtasks(&self) -> bool {
        !self.nextticks.is_empty() || !self.microtasks.is_empty()
    }
    /// Whether any pending timer is *referenced* — the timer half of Node's
    /// handle count. Only these keep the loop alive; unref'd timers still fire
    /// while something else holds the loop open, but never hold it themselves.
    fn has_refed_macrotasks(&self) -> bool {
        self.macrotasks.iter().any(|t| !t.cancelled && t.refed)
    }
    /// Whether any pending timer repeats. A repeating timer cannot run on the
    /// virtual clock: virtual time never advances, so the interval would re-arm
    /// at the same instant forever, spinning a core and starving every
    /// longer-delay timer behind it. Its presence forces the real clock.
    fn has_pending_interval(&self) -> bool {
        self.macrotasks
            .iter()
            .any(|t| !t.cancelled && t.interval.is_some())
    }
}

/// Drive the event loop to quiescence.
///
/// **Liveness** is Node's handle count: the loop runs while a microtask is
/// pending, an open handle is registered (a listening server, a live socket, an
/// in-flight async op), or a *referenced* timer is still pending. That last term
/// is what makes `setInterval(fn, 1000)` hold the process open forever, as it
/// does in Node — the interval re-arms itself, so a ref'd timer is always
/// pending and the loop never reaches its exit condition.
///
/// Two **clock regimes**, selected per iteration:
///
/// - **Virtual clock** (no open handles and no repeating timer): the original
///   deterministic path — fire the earliest `(delay, seq)` timer immediately, no
///   real waiting. Parity output and test speed for ordinary `setTimeout`
///   scripts are unchanged.
/// - **Real clock** (an open handle, or any pending interval): fire every timer
///   whose wall-clock deadline has passed, then BLOCK on the I/O channel
///   (`recv_timeout` bounded by the next deadline, or unbounded `recv` if no
///   timers) and run the received `IoTask` on the main thread. The host keeps
///   its own `Sender`, so `recv` never disconnects while the process should stay
///   alive.
///
///   A repeating timer *must* take this path: virtual time never advances, so an
///   interval on the virtual clock would re-fire at the same instant forever,
///   spinning a core and starving every longer-delay timer behind it.
///
/// Errors thrown by a task/timer/I/O dispatch abort the loop (uncaught → surfaced).
pub fn run_event_loop() -> Result<(), String> {
    // Own the receiver for the loop's duration (blocking `recv` cannot hold a
    // host borrow); restore it afterward so a re-entrant run reuses the channel.
    let rx = with_host(|h| h.io_rx.take());
    let result = drive_event_loop(rx.as_ref());
    with_host(|h| h.io_rx = rx);
    result
}

fn drive_event_loop(rx: Option<&Receiver<IoTask>>) -> Result<(), String> {
    loop {
        // 1) Exhaust the microtask queue (nextTick before promise reactions),
        //    then report anything that rejected with nobody watching.
        while let Some(task) = with_host(|h| h.next_microtask()) {
            task.run()?;
        }
        check_unhandled_rejections()?;

        // 2) Liveness (Node's handle count). Nothing referenced left to do ⇒ the
        //    process exits, dropping any unref'd timers still pending — which is
        //    why `setTimeout(fn, 1000).unref()` never fires, while an unref'd
        //    timer behind a ref'd one does.
        let alive =
            with_host(|h| h.has_microtasks() || h.open_handles() > 0 || h.has_refed_macrotasks());
        if !alive {
            break;
        }

        // 3) Pick the clock regime for this turn.
        let virtual_clock = with_host(|h| h.open_handles() == 0 && !h.has_pending_interval());
        if virtual_clock {
            // ── virtual-clock regime (unchanged for one-shot timers) ─────────
            match with_host(|h| h.pop_next_timer()) {
                Some(t) => fire_timer(t)?,
                // Unreachable while `alive` holds (a ref'd timer must exist),
                // but exiting is the safe reading of "nothing left to run".
                None => break,
            }
            continue;
        }

        // ── real-clock / blocking-I/O regime ─────────────────────────────────
        let now = Instant::now();
        if let Some(t) = with_host(|h| h.pop_due_timer(now)) {
            fire_timer(t)?;
            continue; // re-drain microtasks, re-check deadlines
        }
        // Nothing due and no pending microtasks: block for the next I/O event,
        // bounded by the soonest timer deadline so due timers still fire on time.
        let rx = rx.expect("blocking-I/O regime requires the I/O receiver");
        let timeout = with_host(|h| h.next_timer_timeout(now));
        let recv = match timeout {
            Some(d) => rx.recv_timeout(d),
            None => rx
                .recv()
                .map_err(|_| std::sync::mpsc::RecvTimeoutError::Disconnected),
        };
        match recv {
            Ok(task) => task()?,
            Err(std::sync::mpsc::RecvTimeoutError::Timeout) => {} // a timer is now due
            Err(std::sync::mpsc::RecvTimeoutError::Disconnected) => break, // no senders left
        }
    }
    Ok(())
}

/// Run one due timer's callback, first re-arming it if it repeats.
///
/// The re-arm happens BEFORE the callback runs so that a `clearInterval(t)`
/// issued from inside that callback cancels the next occurrence. Re-arming
/// afterwards would leave the interval absent from the queue for the duration of
/// its own callback, so the `clear` would match nothing and the freshly pushed
/// entry would resurrect an interval the program had just stopped.
fn fire_timer(t: Timer) -> Result<(), String> {
    if let Some(period) = t.interval {
        with_host(|h| h.rearm_timer(&t, period));
    }
    invoke(&t.callback, t.args, None)?;
    Ok(())
}

// ── async functions & promise resolution (native) ────────────────────────────

/// Drive a freshly-built async coroutine and return its result promise.
fn run_async(gen: Value) -> Value {
    let result = with_host(|h| h.new_promise());
    let rid = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&result).unwrap());
    drive_async(gen, rid, Value::Undef);
    result
}

/// Resume an async coroutine one step, wiring `await` continuations to promise
/// settlement.
fn drive_async(gen: Value, rid: u32, send: Value) {
    match gen_resume(&gen, send) {
        Ok(GenStep::Yield(awaited)) => {
            let ap = promise_of(&awaited);
            let aid = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&ap).unwrap());
            let gen2 = gen.clone();
            subscribe_native(
                aid,
                Box::new(move |state, val| {
                    // Resume the coroutine with a `[tag, value]` packet the AWAIT
                    // op unwraps (tag 1 ⇒ the awaited promise rejected → throw).
                    let tag = if state == PromiseState::Rejected {
                        1.0
                    } else {
                        0.0
                    };
                    let packet = with_host(|h| h.new_array(vec![Value::Float(tag), val]));
                    drive_async(gen2, rid, packet);
                    Ok(())
                }),
            );
        }
        Ok(GenStep::Done(v)) => resolve_promise_val(rid, v),
        Err(e) => {
            let ev = take_exc_or_error(&e);
            reject_promise_val(rid, ev);
        }
    }
}

/// The AWAIT op body (runs inside the async coroutine): suspend, yielding the
/// awaited value; on resume, unwrap the settlement packet (throwing on reject).
pub fn await_value(awaited: Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
    // Inside an `async function*`, `await` and `yield` share one coroutine
    // yielder, so an awaited value has to be tagged or the driver would hand it
    // to the consumer as if the body had yielded it.
    let awaited = match CUR_GEN.with(|c| c.get()) {
        Some(id) if with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].async_gen) => with_host(|h| {
            let mut m = IndexMap::new();
            m.insert(AWAIT_MARKER.to_string(), awaited);
            h.new_object(m)
        }),
        _ => awaited,
    };
    let packet = gen_yield(awaited)?;
    let items = with_host(|h| h.iter_vec(&packet)).unwrap_or_default();
    let tag = items
        .first()
        .map(|v| with_host(|h| h.to_number(v)))
        .unwrap_or(0.0);
    let val = items.get(1).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Undef);
    if tag == 1.0 {
        with_host(|h| h.exc = Some(val.clone()));
        Err(with_host(|h| crate::builtins::error_string(h, &val)))
    } else {
        Ok(val)
    }
}

/// Hidden key marking an `await` suspension inside an async generator.
const AWAIT_MARKER: &str = "@@await";

/// The operand of an `await` suspension, or `None` for a real `yield`.
fn await_marker(v: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
    with_host(|h| match h.get(v) {
        Some(JsObj::Object(props)) if props.len() == 1 => props.get(AWAIT_MARKER).cloned(),
        _ => None,
    })
}

/// `AsyncGeneratorEnqueue` — queue one request against an `async function*` and
/// hand back the promise its `{value, done}` record (or rejection) will settle.
///
/// All three of `.next`, `.return` and `.throw` come through here, so a request
/// never resumes the body while an earlier one is still suspended on an
/// internal `await`.
pub fn async_gen_enqueue(gen: &Value, req: GenReq) -> Value {
    let step = with_host(|h| h.new_promise());
    let sid = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&step).unwrap());
    let id = match with_host(|h| match h.get(gen) {
        Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) => Some(*id),
        _ => None,
    }) {
        Some(id) => id,
        None => return step,
    };
    with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].queue.push_back((req, sid)));
    pump_async_gen(gen.clone(), id);
    step
}

/// One `.next(v)` of an `async function*`.
pub fn async_gen_step(gen: &Value, send: Value) -> Value {
    async_gen_enqueue(gen, GenReq::Next(send))
}

/// `AsyncGeneratorResumeNext`: start the oldest queued request, unless one is
/// already in flight (the body may only be resumed by one request at a time).
fn pump_async_gen(gen: Value, id: u32) {
    if with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].running) {
        return;
    }
    let Some((req, sid)) = with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].queue.pop_front()) else {
        return;
    };
    with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].running = true);
    start_async_gen_req(gen, sid, req);
}

/// Begin one queued request: resume the body with the completion it carries,
/// then hand the outcome to the shared continuation.
///
/// A RETURN completion always Awaits its value before the body sees it — via
/// `AsyncGeneratorUnwrapYieldResumption` (ECMA-262 27.6.3.7) when the generator
/// is suspended at a `yield`, and via `AsyncGeneratorAwaitReturn` (27.6.3.9)
/// when it is not yet started or already completed. So a `.return()` settles one
/// microtask after a `.next()` or `.throw()` issued in its place would, and the
/// `finally` it unwinds through runs a tick later too. Skipping that tick lets a
/// `.return()` overtake the reactions of the `.next()` it followed.
fn start_async_gen_req(gen: Value, sid: u32, req: GenReq) {
    if matches!(req, GenReq::Return(_)) {
        with_host(|h| {
            h.queue_micro_native(Box::new(move || {
                resume_async_gen_req(gen, sid, req);
                Ok(())
            }))
        });
        return;
    }
    resume_async_gen_req(gen, sid, req);
}

/// Deliver a queued completion to the body and settle its step promise.
fn resume_async_gen_req(gen: Value, sid: u32, req: GenReq) {
    let step = match req {
        GenReq::Next(v) => gen_resume(&gen, v),
        GenReq::Return(v) => gen_return(&gen, v),
        GenReq::Throw(e) => gen_throw(&gen, e),
    };
    settle_async_gen_step(gen, sid, step);
}

/// One request has settled: release the body and start the next queued request.
fn finish_async_gen_step(gen: Value, id: u32) {
    with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].running = false);
    pump_async_gen(gen, id);
}

/// Whether `v` is an `async function*` object (its `.next()` yields promises).
pub fn is_async_generator(v: &Value) -> bool {
    let id = match with_host(|h| match h.get(v) {
        Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) => Some(*id),
        _ => None,
    }) {
        Some(id) => id,
        None => return false,
    };
    with_host(|h| h.generators[id as usize].async_gen)
}

/// A `{ value, done }` iterator-result object.
fn iter_record(value: Value, done: bool) -> Value {
    with_host(|h| {
        let mut m = IndexMap::new();
        m.insert("value".to_string(), value);
        m.insert("done".to_string(), Value::Bool(done));
        h.new_object(m)
    })
}

/// Resume a request that was suspended on an internal `await` (always a normal
/// completion — the awaited promise's outcome rides in `packet`).
fn drive_async_gen(gen: Value, sid: u32, packet: Value) {
    let step = gen_resume(&gen, packet);
    settle_async_gen_step(gen, sid, step);
}

/// Turn one body resumption into a settled step promise: transparently re-drive
/// internal `await` suspensions, and settle on the first REAL yield or on the
/// body's completion. Shared by the initial resume of a queued request and by
/// every await-resumption of it.
fn settle_async_gen_step(gen: Value, sid: u32, step: Result<GenStep, String>) {
    let id = match with_host(|h| match h.get(&gen) {
        Some(JsObj::Generator { id }) => Some(*id),
        _ => None,
    }) {
        Some(id) => id,
        None => return,
    };
    match step {
        Ok(GenStep::Yield(v)) => match await_marker(&v) {
            Some(awaited) => {
                // An internal `await`: settle it, then resume the body. The
                // request stays in flight across the suspension.
                let ap = promise_of(&awaited);
                let aid = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&ap).unwrap());
                subscribe_native(
                    aid,
                    Box::new(move |state, val| {
                        let tag = if state == PromiseState::Rejected {
                            1.0
                        } else {
                            0.0
                        };
                        let packet = with_host(|h| h.new_array(vec![Value::Float(tag), val]));
                        drive_async_gen(gen.clone(), sid, packet);
                        Ok(())
                    }),
                );
            }
            // ECMA-262 27.6.3.8 AsyncGeneratorYield step 5: the yielded value is
            // AWAITED before the step promise settles, so `yield somePromise`
            // hands the consumer the RESOLVED value (and costs its microtask).
            None => {
                let yp = promise_of(&v);
                let yid = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&yp).unwrap());
                subscribe_native(
                    yid,
                    Box::new(move |state, val| {
                        if state == PromiseState::Rejected {
                            reject_promise_val(sid, val);
                        } else {
                            resolve_promise_val(sid, iter_record(val, false));
                        }
                        finish_async_gen_step(gen.clone(), id);
                        Ok(())
                    }),
                );
            }
        },
        Ok(GenStep::Done(v)) => {
            resolve_promise_val(sid, iter_record(v, true));
            finish_async_gen_step(gen, id);
        }
        Err(e) => {
            let ev = take_exc_or_error(&e);
            reject_promise_val(sid, ev);
            finish_async_gen_step(gen, id);
        }
    }
}

/// A promise for `v`: `v` itself if it is already a promise, else a promise
/// resolved with `v`.
pub fn promise_of(v: &Value) -> Value {
    if with_host(|h| h.promise_id(v)).is_some() {
        return v.clone();
    }
    let p = with_host(|h| h.new_promise());
    let id = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&p).unwrap());
    resolve_promise_val(id, v.clone());
    p
}

/// Register a native reaction on promise `id` (schedules immediately if already
/// settled).
pub fn subscribe_native(id: u32, f: Box<dyn FnOnce(PromiseState, Value) -> Result<(), String>>) {
    // A native continuation (`await`, promise adoption, `for await`) observes a
    // rejection exactly as a `.catch` does, so it is not "unhandled".
    with_host(|h| h.promise_mark_handled(id));
    let state = with_host(|h| h.promise_state(id));
    if state == PromiseState::Pending {
        with_host(|h| h.add_reaction(id, PromiseReaction::Native(f)));
    } else {
        let val = with_host(|h| h.promise_value(id));
        with_host(|h| h.queue_micro_native(Box::new(move || f(state, val))));
    }
}

/// The Promise "resolve" operation: adopt `value`'s state if it is a promise,
/// else fulfill with it.
pub fn resolve_promise_val(id: u32, value: Value) {
    if with_host(|h| h.promise_state(id)) != PromiseState::Pending {
        return;
    }
    if let Some(vid) = with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&value)) {
        if vid == id {
            // Resolving a promise with itself → reject with a TypeError.
            let e = with_host(|h| {
                crate::builtins::synth_error(h, "TypeError: Chaining cycle detected")
            });
            reject_promise_val(id, e);
            return;
        }
        // A native promise is still a thenable, so the spec routes it through
        // `NewPromiseResolveThenableJob` too — one microtask before the adoption
        // is even registered. (`await` does NOT pay this: V8's await optimization
        // subscribes to a native promise directly, which `await_value` mirrors.)
        with_host(|h| {
            h.queue_micro_native(Box::new(move || {
                subscribe_native(
                    vid,
                    Box::new(move |state, val| {
                        with_host(|h| h.settle_promise(id, state, val.clone()));
                        schedule_reactions(id);
                        Ok(())
                    }),
                );
                Ok(())
            }))
        });
        return;
    }
    // ECMA-262 27.2.1.3.2: any OBJECT carrying a callable `then` is assimilated
    // through a dedicated job — the promise adopts what `then` reports, it is
    // never fulfilled WITH the thenable itself.
    if let Some(then) = thenable_then(&value) {
        with_host(|h| {
            h.queue_micro_native(Box::new(move || resolve_thenable_job(id, value, then)))
        });
        return;
    }
    with_host(|h| h.settle_promise(id, PromiseState::Fulfilled, value));
    schedule_reactions(id);
}

/// `value.then` if `value` is an object with a callable `then` — the test that
/// makes a value a *thenable*. Primitives (and objects without one) are `None`.
fn thenable_then(value: &Value) -> Option<Value> {
    if !with_host(|h| matches!(h.get(value), Some(JsObj::Object(_)))) {
        return None;
    }
    let then = with_host(|h| lookup_chain(h, value, "then"))?;
    with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &then)).then_some(then)
}

/// `NewPromiseResolveThenableJob`: hand the thenable this promise's own resolve /
/// reject continuations and let it settle us. A throw out of `then` rejects.
fn resolve_thenable_job(id: u32, thenable: Value, then: Value) -> Result<(), String> {
    let res = with_host(|h| h.alloc(JsObj::Builtin(format!("@@presolve:{id}"))));
    let rej = with_host(|h| h.alloc(JsObj::Builtin(format!("@@preject:{id}"))));
    if let Err(e) = invoke(&then, vec![res, rej], Some(thenable)) {
        let ev = take_exc_or_error(&e);
        reject_promise_val(id, ev);
    }
    Ok(())
}

pub fn reject_promise_val(id: u32, value: Value) {
    if with_host(|h| h.promise_state(id)) != PromiseState::Pending {
        return;
    }
    with_host(|h| {
        h.settle_promise(id, PromiseState::Rejected, value);
        h.pending_rejections.push(id);
    });
    schedule_reactions(id);
}

/// Report every promise that settled rejected since the last checkpoint and
/// still has no handler. Node's default is `--unhandled-rejections=throw`: the
/// rejection becomes an uncaught exception (stderr + exit 1) unless a
/// `process.on('unhandledRejection')` listener takes it.
fn check_unhandled_rejections() -> Result<(), String> {
    loop {
        let ids: Vec<u32> = with_host(|h| std::mem::take(&mut h.pending_rejections));
        if ids.is_empty() {
            return Ok(());
        }
        for id in ids {
            let unhandled = with_host(|h| {
                h.promise_state(id) == PromiseState::Rejected && !h.promises[id as usize].handled
            });
            if !unhandled {
                continue;
            }
            // Report each promise at most once, however many checkpoints pass.
            with_host(|h| h.promise_mark_handled(id));
            let val = with_host(|h| h.promise_value(id));
            let listeners = with_host(|h| h.take_process_listeners("unhandledRejection"));
            if listeners.is_empty() {
                let msg = with_host(|h| crate::builtins::error_string(h, &val));
                with_host(|h| h.exc = Some(val));
                return Err(msg);
            }
            let promise = with_host(|h| h.alloc(JsObj::Promise { id }));
            for f in listeners {
                invoke(&f, vec![val.clone(), promise.clone()], None)?;
            }
        }
    }
}

/// Drain a settled promise's reactions into microtasks.
fn schedule_reactions(id: u32) {
    let reactions = with_host(|h| h.take_reactions(id));
    let state = with_host(|h| h.promise_state(id));
    let value = with_host(|h| h.promise_value(id));
    for r in reactions {
        let value = value.clone();
        match r {
            PromiseReaction::Native(f) => {
                with_host(|h| h.queue_micro_native(Box::new(move || f(state, value))));
            }
            PromiseReaction::Js {
                on_ful,
                on_rej,
                result,
            } => {
                with_host(|h| {
                    h.queue_micro_native(Box::new(move || {
                        run_js_reaction(state, value, on_ful, on_rej, result)
                    }))
                });
            }
        }
    }
}

/// Run a `.then` reaction: call the appropriate handler and settle the result
/// promise with its outcome (or pass through if there is no handler).
fn run_js_reaction(
    state: PromiseState,
    value: Value,
    on_ful: Value,
    on_rej: Value,
    result: Value,
) -> Result<(), String> {
    let rid = match with_host(|h| h.promise_id(&result)) {
        Some(i) => i,
        None => return Ok(()),
    };
    let handler = if state == PromiseState::Rejected {
        on_rej
    } else {
        on_ful
    };
    if with_host(|h| is_callable(h, &handler)) {
        match invoke(&handler, vec![value], None) {
            Ok(r) => resolve_promise_val(rid, r),
            Err(e) => reject_promise_val(rid, take_exc_or_error(&e)),
        }
    } else if state == PromiseState::Rejected {
        reject_promise_val(rid, value);
    } else {
        resolve_promise_val(rid, value);
    }
    Ok(())
}

/// The JS value of a just-caught error: the live `exc` (a real thrown value) or a
/// synthesized `Error` from the internal message.
pub fn take_exc_or_error(e: &str) -> Value {
    with_host(|h| {
        h.error.take();
        h.exc
            .take()
            .unwrap_or_else(|| crate::builtins::synth_error(h, e))
    })
}

/// Register a user `.then` reaction (JS handlers + result promise).
pub fn promise_then(p: &Value, on_ful: Value, on_rej: Value) -> Value {
    let id = match with_host(|h| h.promise_id(p)) {
        Some(i) => i,
        None => return Value::Undef,
    };
    with_host(|h| h.promise_mark_handled(id));
    let result = with_host(|h| h.new_promise());
    let reaction = PromiseReaction::Js {
        on_ful,
        on_rej,
        result: result.clone(),
    };
    let state = with_host(|h| h.promise_state(id));
    if state == PromiseState::Pending {
        with_host(|h| h.add_reaction(id, reaction));
    } else {
        let value = with_host(|h| h.promise_value(id));
        if let PromiseReaction::Js {
            on_ful,
            on_rej,
            result,
        } = reaction
        {
            with_host(|h| {
                h.queue_micro_native(Box::new(move || {
                    run_js_reaction(state, value, on_ful, on_rej, result)
                }))
            });
        }
    }
    result
}