leo_compiler/

run.rs

// Copyright (C) 2019-2026 Provable Inc.
// This file is part of the Leo library.

// The Leo library is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
// it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
// the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
// (at your option) any later version.

// The Leo library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
// but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
// MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
// GNU General Public License for more details.

// You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
// along with the Leo library. If not, see <https://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.

//! Utilities for running Leo programs in test environments.
//!
//! Currently this is used by:
//! - the test runner in `test_execution.rs`, and
//! - the `leo test` command in `cli/commands/test.rs`.
//!
//! Provides functions for:
//! - Running programs without a ledger (`run_without_ledger`). To be used for evaluating non-async code.
//! - Running programs with a full ledger (`run_with_ledger`), including setup of VM, blocks, and execution tracking.
//!   To be used for executing async code.
//!
//! Also defines types for program configuration, test cases, and outcomes.

use leo_ast::{TEST_PRIVATE_KEY, const_eval::Value};
use leo_errors::Result;

use aleo_std_storage::StorageMode;
use anyhow::anyhow;
use rand_chacha::{ChaCha20Rng, rand_core::SeedableRng as _};
use serde_json;
use snarkvm::{
    circuit::AleoTestnetV0,
    prelude::{
        Address,
        Block,
        Certificate,
        ConsensusVersion,
        Deployment,
        Execution,
        Fee,
        FromBytes,
        Identifier,
        Ledger,
        Network,
        PrivateKey,
        ProgramID,
        ProgramOwner,
        TestnetV0,
        Transaction,
        VM,
        Value as SvmValue,
        VerifyingKey,
        deployment_cost,
        execution_cost,
        store::{ConsensusStore, helpers::memory::ConsensusMemory},
    },
    synthesizer::program::{FinalizeStoreTrait, ProgramCore, StackTrait},
};
use std::{
    fmt,
    panic::{AssertUnwindSafe, catch_unwind},
    str::FromStr as _,
};

type CurrentNetwork = TestnetV0;

/// Programs and configuration to run.
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Config {
    pub seed: u64,
    // If `None`, start at the height for the latest consensus version.
    pub start_height: Option<u32>,
    pub programs: Vec<Program>,
    /// Skip proof generation for faster testing. Requires `dev_skip_checks`.
    pub skip_proving: bool,
}

/// A program to deploy to the ledger.
#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
pub struct Program {
    pub bytecode: String,
    pub name: String,
}

/// A single finalize-store entry to write before a case is evaluated.
///
/// `run_without_ledger` doesn't run finalize blocks, so mappings are otherwise empty — seeding
/// is the only way to give view test cases (and finalize-reading transitions) state to read.
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
pub struct SeedMapping {
    /// Mapping name in the case's `program_name`.
    pub mapping: String,
    /// Plaintext key in snarkVM display form.
    pub key: String,
    /// Plaintext value in snarkVM display form.
    pub value: String,
}

/// A particular case to run.
#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
pub struct Case {
    pub program_name: String,
    pub function: String,
    pub private_key: Option<String>,
    pub input: Vec<String>,
    /// Pre-populated finalize-store entries written before the case is evaluated.
    pub seed_mapping: Vec<SeedMapping>,
}

/// The status of a case that was run.
#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub enum ExecutionStatus {
    None,
    Aborted(Option<String>),
    Accepted,
    Rejected,
    Halted(String),
}

impl fmt::Display for ExecutionStatus {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        match self {
            Self::Halted(s) => write!(f, "halted ({s})"),
            Self::None => write!(f, "none"),
            Self::Aborted(None) => write!(f, "aborted"),
            Self::Aborted(Some(reason)) => write!(f, "aborted: {reason}"),
            Self::Accepted => write!(f, "accepted"),
            Self::Rejected => write!(f, "rejected"),
        }
    }
}

#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub enum EvaluationStatus {
    Success,
    Failed(String),
}

impl fmt::Display for EvaluationStatus {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        match self {
            Self::Success => write!(f, "success"),
            Self::Failed(e) => write!(f, "failed: {e}"),
        }
    }
}

/// Shared fields for all outcome types.
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct Outcome {
    pub program_name: String,
    pub function: String,
    pub output: Value,
}

impl Outcome {
    pub fn output(&self) -> Value {
        self.output.clone()
    }
}

/// Outcome of an evaluation-only run (no execution trace, no verification).
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct EvaluationOutcome {
    pub outcome: Outcome,
    pub status: EvaluationStatus,
}

impl EvaluationOutcome {
    pub fn output(&self) -> Value {
        self.outcome.output()
    }
}

/// Outcome that includes execution and verification details.
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct ExecutionOutcome {
    pub outcome: Outcome,
    pub verified: bool,
    pub execution: String,
    pub status: ExecutionStatus,
}

impl ExecutionOutcome {
    pub fn output(&self) -> Value {
        self.outcome.output()
    }
}

/// Placeholder verifying key used for proof-less deployments.
pub const PLACEHOLDER_VK: &str = "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";

/// Placeholder certificate used for proof-less deployments.
pub const PLACEHOLDER_CERT: &str =
    "certificate1qyqsqqqqqqqqqqxvwszp09v860w62s2l4g6eqf0kzppyax5we36957ywqm2dplzwvvlqg0kwlnmhzfatnax7uaqt7yqqqw0sc4u";

/// Deploy a program without generating certificates or proofs.
fn deploy_without_proof(
    vm: &VM<CurrentNetwork, ConsensusMemory<CurrentNetwork>>,
    private_key: &PrivateKey<CurrentNetwork>,
    program: &ProgramCore<CurrentNetwork>,
    edition: u16,
    consensus_version: ConsensusVersion,
    rng: &mut ChaCha20Rng,
) -> anyhow::Result<Transaction<CurrentNetwork>> {
    // Create placeholder verifying keys and certificates for each function and record.
    // The ledger requires exactly num_functions + num_records verifying keys per deployment.
    let placeholder_vk = VerifyingKey::from_str(PLACEHOLDER_VK)?;
    let placeholder_cert = Certificate::from_str(PLACEHOLDER_CERT)?;
    let verifying_keys = program
        .functions()
        .keys()
        .chain(program.records().keys())
        .map(|name| (*name, (placeholder_vk.clone(), placeholder_cert.clone())))
        .collect::<Vec<_>>();

    // Create the deployment with placeholders.
    let mut deployment = Deployment::new(edition, program.clone(), verifying_keys, None, None)
        .map_err(|e| anyhow!("Failed to create deployment: {e}"))?;

    // Set the program owner and checksum.
    deployment.set_program_owner_raw(Some(Address::try_from(private_key)?));
    deployment.set_program_checksum_raw(Some(deployment.program().to_checksum()));

    // Compute the deployment ID and construct the owner.
    let deployment_id = deployment.to_deployment_id()?;
    let owner = ProgramOwner::new(private_key, deployment_id, rng)?;

    // Calculate the minimum deployment cost.
    let (minimum_deployment_cost, _) = deployment_cost(vm.process(), &deployment, consensus_version)?;

    // Authorize the fee (public, no proof).
    let fee_authorization = vm.authorize_fee_public(private_key, minimum_deployment_cost, 0, deployment_id, rng)?;

    // Create a fee transition without a proof.
    let state_root = vm.block_store().current_state_root();
    let fee = Fee::from(fee_authorization.transitions().into_iter().next().unwrap().1, state_root, None)?;

    Transaction::from_deployment(owner, deployment, fee).map_err(|e| anyhow!("Failed to create deployment tx: {e}"))
}

/// Execute a transition without generating proofs. Returns (Transaction, Response).
fn execute_without_proof(
    vm: &VM<CurrentNetwork, ConsensusMemory<CurrentNetwork>>,
    private_key: &PrivateKey<CurrentNetwork>,
    program_id: &str,
    function_name: &str,
    inputs: impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = impl TryInto<SvmValue<CurrentNetwork>>>,
    consensus_version: ConsensusVersion,
    rng: &mut ChaCha20Rng,
) -> anyhow::Result<(Transaction<CurrentNetwork>, snarkvm::prelude::Response<CurrentNetwork>)> {
    // Authorize the execution (fast, no proving).
    let authorization = vm.authorize(private_key, program_id, function_name, inputs, rng)?;

    // Evaluate to get the response (outputs, no proving).
    let response = vm.process().evaluate::<AleoTestnetV0>(authorization.clone())?;

    // Build the execution without a proof.
    let state_root = vm.block_store().current_state_root();
    let execution = Execution::from(authorization.transitions().values().cloned(), state_root, None)?;

    // Calculate the execution cost for fee authorization.
    let (cost, _) = execution_cost(vm.process(), &execution, consensus_version)?;

    // Authorize and create the fee without a proof.
    let execution_id = authorization.to_execution_id()?;
    let fee_authorization = vm.authorize_fee_public(private_key, cost, 0, execution_id, rng)?;
    let fee = Fee::from(fee_authorization.transitions().into_iter().next().unwrap().1, state_root, None)?;

    let transaction = Transaction::from_execution(execution, Some(fee))?;
    Ok((transaction, response))
}

/// Evaluates a set of cases against some programs without using a ledger.
///
/// Each case is run in isolation, producing an `EvaluationOutcome` for its
/// output and success/failure status. Panics and errors in authorization or
/// evaluation are caught and reported as failures.
pub fn run_without_ledger(config: &Config, cases: &[Case]) -> Result<Vec<EvaluationOutcome>> {
    // Nothing to do
    if cases.is_empty() {
        return Ok(Vec::new());
    }

    let programs_and_editions: Vec<(snarkvm::prelude::Program<CurrentNetwork>, u16)> = config
        .programs
        .iter()
        .map(|Program { bytecode, name }| {
            let program = snarkvm::prelude::Program::<CurrentNetwork>::from_str(bytecode)
                .map_err(|e| anyhow!("Failed to parse bytecode of program {name}: {e}"))?;
            // Assume edition 1. We can consider parametrizing this in the future.
            let edition: u16 = 1;
            Ok((program, edition))
        })
        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;

    let outcomes: Vec<EvaluationOutcome> = cases
        .iter()
        .map(|case| {
            let rng = &mut ChaCha20Rng::seed_from_u64(config.seed);

            // Helper to produce an EvaluationOutcome with `Failed` status
            let failed_outcome = |e: String| EvaluationOutcome {
                outcome: Outcome {
                    program_name: case.program_name.clone(),
                    function: case.function.clone(),
                    output: Value::make_unit(),
                },
                status: EvaluationStatus::Failed(e),
            };

            let vm = match ConsensusStore::<CurrentNetwork, ConsensusMemory<CurrentNetwork>>::open(
                StorageMode::Production,
            ) {
                Ok(store) => match VM::from(store) {
                    Ok(vm) => vm,
                    Err(e) => return failed_outcome(format!("VM init error: {e}")),
                },
                Err(e) => return failed_outcome(format!("Consensus store open error: {e}")),
            };

            if let Err(e) = vm.process().lock().add_programs_with_editions(&programs_and_editions) {
                return failed_outcome(format!("Failed to add programs: {e}"));
            }

            // `add_programs_with_editions` registers programs in the process but does not touch
            // the finalize store. Views that read mappings need the mappings to be present in
            // the finalize store, so initialize each program's mappings here. This mirrors what
            // a real deployment would do during finalize.
            for (program, _) in &programs_and_editions {
                for mapping_name in program.mappings().keys() {
                    // `initialize_mapping` returns an error if the mapping is already present.
                    // We discard that error: across multiple cases the same mapping is initialized
                    // each time.
                    let _ = vm.finalize_store().initialize_mapping(*program.id(), *mapping_name);
                }
            }

            let private_key = match PrivateKey::from_str(leo_ast::TEST_PRIVATE_KEY) {
                Ok(pk) => pk,
                Err(e) => return failed_outcome(format!("Private key parse error: {e}")),
            };
            let program_id = match ProgramID::<CurrentNetwork>::from_str(&case.program_name) {
                Ok(pid) => pid,
                Err(e) => return failed_outcome(format!("ProgramID parse error: {e}")),
            };
            let function_id = match Identifier::<CurrentNetwork>::from_str(&case.function) {
                Ok(fid) => fid,
                Err(e) => return failed_outcome(format!("FunctionID parse error: {e}")),
            };

            // Seed any pre-populated mapping entries before evaluating the case. Useful for
            // view test cases where `run_without_ledger` doesn't run finalize blocks, so
            // mappings are otherwise empty.
            for SeedMapping { mapping: mapping_name_str, key: key_str, value: value_str } in &case.seed_mapping {
                let mapping_name = match Identifier::<CurrentNetwork>::from_str(mapping_name_str) {
                    Ok(n) => n,
                    Err(e) => return failed_outcome(format!("Failed to parse seed mapping name: {e}")),
                };
                let key = match snarkvm::prelude::Plaintext::<CurrentNetwork>::from_str(key_str) {
                    Ok(k) => k,
                    Err(e) => return failed_outcome(format!("Failed to parse seed key: {e}")),
                };
                let value = match SvmValue::<CurrentNetwork>::from_str(value_str) {
                    Ok(v) => v,
                    Err(e) => return failed_outcome(format!("Failed to parse seed value: {e}")),
                };
                if let Err(e) = vm.finalize_store().update_key_value(program_id, mapping_name, key, value) {
                    return failed_outcome(format!("Failed to seed mapping: {e}"));
                }
            }

            // Views and transitions take different snarkVM paths:
            //   - Transitions go through `authorize` + `evaluate`, producing a transition object.
            //   - Views go through `evaluate_view_at_height`, returning plaintext outputs with no transition and
            //     no transaction.
            let is_view = vm
                .process()
                .get_stack(program_id)
                .map(|stack| stack.program().contains_view(&function_id))
                .unwrap_or(false);

            if is_view {
                handle_view(case, &vm, program_id, function_id)
            } else {
                handle_transition(case, &vm, program_id, function_id, &private_key, rng)
            }
        })
        .collect();

    Ok(outcomes)
}

/// Evaluate a single view-fn case against `vm`'s in-memory finalize store and return the outcome.
fn handle_view(
    case: &Case,
    vm: &VM<CurrentNetwork, ConsensusMemory<CurrentNetwork>>,
    program_id: ProgramID<CurrentNetwork>,
    function_id: Identifier<CurrentNetwork>,
) -> EvaluationOutcome {
    let failed = |e: String| failed_evaluation_outcome(case, e);
    let parsed_inputs: Vec<SvmValue<CurrentNetwork>> = match case
        .input
        .iter()
        .map(|s| SvmValue::<CurrentNetwork>::from_str(s))
        .collect::<std::result::Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
    {
        Ok(v) => v,
        Err(e) => return failed(format!("Failed to parse view input: {e}")),
    };
    // For an empty in-memory consensus store there is no block 0, so route directly through
    // `Process::evaluate_view_at_height` with a fabricated `FinalizeGlobalState`. Tests are off-consensus by
    // construction, so the values here only matter for queries that read `block.height` / `network.id`.
    let state = match snarkvm::synthesizer::program::FinalizeGlobalState::new::<CurrentNetwork>(
        0,
        0,
        None,
        0,
        0,
        Default::default(),
    ) {
        Ok(s) => s,
        Err(e) => return failed(format!("Failed to build FinalizeGlobalState: {e}")),
    };
    let response = match catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
        vm.process().evaluate_view_at_height(state, vm.finalize_store(), program_id, function_id, parsed_inputs, 0)
    })) {
        Ok(Ok(resp)) => resp,
        Ok(Err(e)) => return failed(format!("{e}")),
        Err(e) => return failed(format!("{e:?}")),
    };
    let output = match response.len() {
        0 => Value::make_unit(),
        1 => response[0].clone().into(),
        _ => Value::make_tuple(response.iter().map(|x| x.clone().into())),
    };
    EvaluationOutcome {
        outcome: Outcome { program_name: case.program_name.clone(), function: case.function.clone(), output },
        status: EvaluationStatus::Success,
    }
}

/// Evaluate a single transition case (authorize + evaluate) against `vm` and return the outcome.
fn handle_transition(
    case: &Case,
    vm: &VM<CurrentNetwork, ConsensusMemory<CurrentNetwork>>,
    program_id: ProgramID<CurrentNetwork>,
    function_id: Identifier<CurrentNetwork>,
    private_key: &PrivateKey<CurrentNetwork>,
    rng: &mut ChaCha20Rng,
) -> EvaluationOutcome {
    let failed = |e: String| failed_evaluation_outcome(case, e);
    let inputs = case.input.iter();

    // --- catch panics from authorize ---
    let authorization =
        match catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(|| vm.authorize(private_key, program_id, function_id, inputs, rng))) {
            Ok(Ok(auth)) => auth,
            Ok(Err(e)) => return failed(format!("{e}")),
            Err(e) => return failed(format!("{e:?}")),
        };

    // --- catch panics from evaluate ---
    let response = match catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(|| vm.process().evaluate::<AleoTestnetV0>(authorization))) {
        Ok(Ok(resp)) => resp,
        Ok(Err(e)) => return failed(format!("{e}")),
        Err(e) => return failed(format!("{e:?}")),
    };

    let outputs = response.outputs();
    let output = match outputs.len() {
        0 => Value::make_unit(),
        1 => outputs[0].clone().into(),
        _ => Value::make_tuple(outputs.iter().map(|x| x.clone().into())),
    };

    EvaluationOutcome {
        outcome: Outcome { program_name: case.program_name.clone(), function: case.function.clone(), output },
        status: EvaluationStatus::Success,
    }
}

/// Build a `Failed` outcome carrying `e` for the given case.
fn failed_evaluation_outcome(case: &Case, e: String) -> EvaluationOutcome {
    EvaluationOutcome {
        outcome: Outcome {
            program_name: case.program_name.clone(),
            function: case.function.clone(),
            output: Value::make_unit(),
        },
        status: EvaluationStatus::Failed(e),
    }
}

/// Run the functions indicated by `cases` from the programs in `config`.
pub fn run_with_ledger(config: &Config, case_sets: &[Vec<Case>]) -> Result<Vec<Vec<ExecutionOutcome>>> {
    if case_sets.is_empty() {
        return Ok(Vec::new());
    }

    // Initialize an rng.
    let mut rng = ChaCha20Rng::seed_from_u64(config.seed);

    // Initialize a genesis private key.
    let genesis_private_key = PrivateKey::from_str(TEST_PRIVATE_KEY).unwrap();

    // Store all of the non-genesis blocks created during set up.
    let mut blocks = Vec::new();

    // Load the genesis block.
    let genesis_block =
        Block::from_bytes_le(include_bytes!("resources/genesis_8d710d7e2_40val_snarkos_dev_network.bin"))?;

    // Initialize a `Ledger`. This should always succeed.
    // Use `new_test` to avoid spurious block-tree persistence errors on drop.
    let ledger = Ledger::<CurrentNetwork, ConsensusMemory<CurrentNetwork>>::load(
        genesis_block.clone(),
        StorageMode::new_test(None),
    )
    .unwrap();

    // Advance the `VM` to the start height, defaulting to the height for the latest consensus version.
    let latest_consensus_version = ConsensusVersion::latest();
    let start_height =
        config.start_height.unwrap_or(CurrentNetwork::CONSENSUS_HEIGHT(latest_consensus_version).unwrap());
    while ledger.latest_height() < start_height {
        let block = ledger
            .prepare_advance_to_next_beacon_block(&genesis_private_key, vec![], vec![], vec![], &mut rng)
            .map_err(|_| anyhow!("Failed to prepare advance to next beacon block"))?;
        ledger.advance_to_next_block(&block).map_err(|_| anyhow!("Failed to advance to next block"))?;
        blocks.push(block);
    }

    // Deploy each bytecode separately.
    for Program { bytecode, name } in &config.programs {
        // Parse the bytecode as an Aleo program.
        // Note that this function checks that the bytecode is well-formed.
        let aleo_program =
            ProgramCore::from_str(bytecode).map_err(|e| anyhow!("Failed to parse bytecode of program {name}: {e}"))?;

        let mut deploy = |edition: u16| -> Result<()> {
            let deployment = if config.skip_proving {
                deploy_without_proof(
                    ledger.vm(),
                    &genesis_private_key,
                    &aleo_program,
                    edition,
                    latest_consensus_version,
                    &mut rng,
                )
                .map_err(|e| anyhow!("Failed to deploy program {name}: {e}"))?
            } else {
                // Add the program to the ledger.
                // Note that this function performs an additional validity check on the bytecode.
                ledger
                    .vm()
                    .deploy(&genesis_private_key, &aleo_program, None, 0, None, &mut rng)
                    .map_err(|e| anyhow!("Failed to deploy program {name}: {e}"))?
            };
            let block = ledger
                .prepare_advance_to_next_beacon_block(&genesis_private_key, vec![], vec![], vec![deployment], &mut rng)
                .map_err(|e| anyhow!("Failed to prepare to advance block for program {name}: {e}"))?;
            ledger
                .advance_to_next_block(&block)
                .map_err(|e| anyhow!("Failed to advance block for program {name}: {e}"))?;

            // Check that the deployment transaction was accepted.
            if block.transactions().num_accepted() != 1 {
                return Err(anyhow!("Deployment transaction for program {name} not accepted.").into());
            }

            // Store the block.
            blocks.push(block);

            Ok(())
        };

        // Deploy the program.
        deploy(0)?;
        // If the program does not have a constructor, deploy it twice to satisfy the edition requirement.
        if !aleo_program.contains_constructor() {
            deploy(1)?;
        }
    }

    // Initialize ledger instances for each case set.
    let mut indexed_ledgers = vec![(0, ledger)];
    indexed_ledgers.extend(
        (1..case_sets.len())
            .map(|i| {
                // Initialize a `Ledger`. This should always succeed.
                // Use `new_test` to avoid spurious block-tree persistence errors on drop.
                let l = Ledger::<CurrentNetwork, ConsensusMemory<CurrentNetwork>>::load(
                    genesis_block.clone(),
                    StorageMode::new_test(None),
                )
                .expect("Failed to load copy of ledger");
                // Add the setup blocks.
                for block in blocks.iter() {
                    l.advance_to_next_block(block).expect("Failed to add setup block to ledger");
                }

                (i, l)
            })
            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
    );

    // For each of the case sets, run the cases sequentially.
    let results = indexed_ledgers
        .into_iter()
        .map(|(index, ledger)| {
            // Get the cases for this ledger.
            let cases = &case_sets[index];
            // Clone the RNG.
            let mut rng = rng.clone();

            // Fund each private key used in the test cases with 1M ALEO.
            let skip_proving = config.skip_proving;
            let transactions: Vec<Transaction<CurrentNetwork>> = cases
                .iter()
                .filter_map(|case| case.private_key.as_ref())
                .map(|key| {
                    // Parse the private key.
                    let private_key =
                        PrivateKey::<CurrentNetwork>::from_str(key).expect("Failed to parse private key.");
                    // Convert the private key to an address.
                    let address = Address::try_from(private_key).expect("Failed to convert private key to address.");
                    // Generate the transaction.
                    if skip_proving {
                        let (tx, _) = execute_without_proof(
                            ledger.vm(),
                            &genesis_private_key,
                            "credits.aleo",
                            "transfer_public",
                            [
                                SvmValue::from_str(&format!("{address}")).expect("Failed to parse recipient address"),
                                SvmValue::from_str("1_000_000_000_000u64").expect("Failed to parse amount"),
                            ]
                            .iter(),
                            latest_consensus_version,
                            &mut rng,
                        )
                        .expect("Failed to generate funding transaction");
                        tx
                    } else {
                        ledger
                            .vm()
                            .execute(
                                &genesis_private_key,
                                ("credits.aleo", "transfer_public"),
                                [
                                    SvmValue::from_str(&format!("{address}"))
                                        .expect("Failed to parse recipient address"),
                                    SvmValue::from_str("1_000_000_000_000u64").expect("Failed to parse amount"),
                                ]
                                .iter(),
                                None,
                                0u64,
                                None,
                                &mut rng,
                            )
                            .expect("Failed to generate funding transaction")
                    }
                })
                .collect();

            // Create a block with the funding transactions.
            let block = ledger
                .prepare_advance_to_next_beacon_block(&genesis_private_key, vec![], vec![], transactions, &mut rng)
                .expect("Failed to prepare advance to next beacon block");
            // Assert that no transactions were aborted or rejected.
            assert!(block.aborted_transaction_ids().is_empty());
            assert_eq!(block.transactions().num_rejected(), 0);
            // Advance the ledger to the next block.
            ledger.advance_to_next_block(&block).expect("Failed to advance to next block");

            let mut case_outcomes = Vec::new();

            for case in cases {
                assert!(
                    ledger.vm().contains_program(&ProgramID::from_str(&case.program_name).unwrap()),
                    "Program {} should exist.",
                    case.program_name
                );

                let private_key = case
                    .private_key
                    .as_ref()
                    .map(|key| PrivateKey::from_str(key).expect("Failed to parse private key."))
                    .unwrap_or(genesis_private_key);

                let mut execution = None;
                let mut verified = false;
                let mut status = ExecutionStatus::None;
                let mut abort_reason: Option<String> = None;

                // Halts are handled by panics, so we need to catch them.
                // I'm not thrilled about this usage of `AssertUnwindSafe`, but it seems to be
                // used frequently in SnarkVM anyway.
                let execute_output = std::panic::catch_unwind(std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
                    if skip_proving {
                        execute_without_proof(
                            ledger.vm(),
                            &private_key,
                            &case.program_name,
                            &case.function,
                            case.input.iter(),
                            latest_consensus_version,
                            &mut rng,
                        )
                    } else {
                        ledger
                            .vm()
                            .execute_with_response(
                                &private_key,
                                (&case.program_name, &case.function),
                                case.input.iter(),
                                None,
                                0,
                                None,
                                &mut rng,
                            )
                            .map_err(anyhow::Error::from)
                    }
                }));

                if let Err(payload) = execute_output {
                    let s1 = payload.downcast_ref::<&str>().map(|s| s.to_string());
                    let s2 = payload.downcast_ref::<String>().cloned();
                    let s = s1.or(s2).unwrap_or_else(|| "Unknown panic payload".to_string());

                    case_outcomes.push(ExecutionOutcome {
                        outcome: Outcome {
                            program_name: case.program_name.clone(),
                            function: case.function.clone(),
                            output: Value::make_unit(),
                        },
                        status: ExecutionStatus::Halted(s),
                        verified: false,
                        execution: "".to_string(),
                    });

                    continue;
                }

                let result = execute_output.unwrap().and_then(|(transaction, response)| {
                    // Skip verification when proving is skipped — proofs are absent
                    // and verification is meaningless.
                    verified = skip_proving || ledger.vm().check_transaction(&transaction, None, &mut rng).is_ok();
                    execution = Some(transaction.clone());
                    let block = ledger
                        .prepare_advance_to_next_beacon_block(&private_key, vec![], vec![], vec![transaction], &mut rng)
                        .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("{e}"))?;
                    status =
                        match (block.aborted_transaction_ids().is_empty(), block.transactions().num_accepted() == 1) {
                            (false, _) => {
                                // Attempt check_transaction to diagnose abort reason.
                                if let Some(ref tx) = execution
                                    && let Err(e) = ledger.vm().check_transaction(tx, None, &mut rng)
                                {
                                    abort_reason = Some(format!("{e}"));
                                }
                                ExecutionStatus::Aborted(abort_reason.take())
                            }
                            (true, true) => ExecutionStatus::Accepted,
                            (true, false) => ExecutionStatus::Rejected,
                        };
                    ledger.advance_to_next_block(&block)?;
                    Ok(response)
                });

                let output = match result {
                    Ok(response) => {
                        let outputs = response.outputs();
                        match outputs.len() {
                            0 => Value::make_unit(),
                            1 => outputs[0].clone().into(),
                            _ => Value::make_tuple(outputs.iter().map(|x| x.clone().into())),
                        }
                    }
                    Err(e) => Value::make_string(format!("Failed to extract output: {e}")),
                };

                // Extract the execution, removing the global state root and proof.
                // This is necessary as they are not deterministic across runs, even with RNG fixed.
                let execution = if let Some(Transaction::Execute(_, _, execution, _)) = execution {
                    Some(Execution::from(execution.into_transitions(), Default::default(), None).unwrap())
                } else {
                    None
                };

                case_outcomes.push(ExecutionOutcome {
                    outcome: Outcome {
                        program_name: case.program_name.clone(),
                        function: case.function.clone(),
                        output,
                    },
                    status,
                    verified,
                    execution: serde_json::to_string_pretty(&execution).expect("Serialization failure"),
                });
            }

            Ok((index, case_outcomes))
        })
        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;

    // Reorder results to match input order.
    let mut ordered_results: Vec<Vec<ExecutionOutcome>> = vec![Default::default(); case_sets.len()];
    for (index, outcomes) in results.into_iter() {
        ordered_results[index] = outcomes;
    }

    Ok(ordered_results)
}