laddu_core/

lib.rs

//! # laddu-core
//!
//! This is an internal crate used by `laddu`.
#![warn(clippy::perf, clippy::style, missing_docs)]
#![allow(clippy::excessive_precision)]
#![cfg_attr(coverage_nightly, feature(coverage_attribute))]

/// Re-exported alias for `std::f64` to ease dependent crates transitioning to the 64-bit
/// floating point API.
pub use std::f64;

#[cfg(feature = "python")]
use pyo3::PyErr;

/// MPI backend for `laddu`
///
/// Message Passing Interface (MPI) is a protocol which enables communication between multiple
/// CPUs in a high-performance computing environment. While [`rayon`] can parallelize tasks on a
/// single CPU, MPI can also parallelize tasks on multiple CPUs by running independent
/// processes on all CPUs at once (tasks) which are assigned ids (ranks) which tell each
/// process what to do and where to send results. This backend coordinates processes which would
/// typically be parallelized over the events in a [`Dataset`](`crate::data::Dataset`).
///
/// To use this backend, the library must be built with the `mpi` feature, which requires an
/// existing implementation of MPI like OpenMPI or MPICH. All processing code should be
/// sandwiched between calls to [`mpi::use_mpi`] and [`mpi::finalize_mpi`]:
/// ```ignore
/// fn main() {
///     laddu_core::mpi::use_mpi(true);
///     // laddu analysis code here
///     laddu_core::mpi::finalize_mpi();
/// }
/// ```
///
/// [`mpi::finalize_mpi`] must be called to trigger all the methods which clean up the MPI
/// environment. While these are called by default when MPI's `Universe` is dropped, `laddu`
/// uses a static `Universe` that can be accessed by all of the methods that need it, rather
/// than passing the context to each method. This simplifies the way programs can be converted
/// to use MPI, but means that the `Universe` is not automatically dropped at the end of the
/// program (so it must be dropped manually).
#[cfg(feature = "mpi")]
#[cfg_attr(coverage_nightly, coverage(off))]
pub mod mpi {
    use std::{
        ops::Range,
        sync::{
            atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
            OnceLock,
        },
    };

    use lazy_static::lazy_static;
    use mpi::{
        datatype::PartitionMut,
        environment::Universe,
        topology::{Process, SimpleCommunicator},
        traits::{Communicator, CommunicatorCollectives, Equivalence},
    };
    use parking_lot::RwLock;

    lazy_static! {
        static ref USE_MPI: AtomicBool = AtomicBool::new(false);
    }

    static MPI_UNIVERSE: OnceLock<RwLock<Option<Universe>>> = OnceLock::new();

    /// The default root rank for MPI processes
    pub const ROOT_RANK: i32 = 0;

    /// Check if the current MPI process is the root process
    pub fn is_root() -> bool {
        if let Some(world) = crate::mpi::get_world() {
            world.rank() == ROOT_RANK
        } else {
            true
        }
    }

    /// Shortcut method to just get the global MPI communicator without accessing `size` and `rank`
    /// directly
    pub fn get_world() -> Option<SimpleCommunicator> {
        if let Some(universe_lock) = MPI_UNIVERSE.get() {
            if let Some(universe) = &*universe_lock.read() {
                return Some(universe.world());
            }
        }
        None
    }

    /// Get the rank of the current process
    pub fn get_rank() -> i32 {
        get_world().map(|w| w.rank()).unwrap_or(ROOT_RANK)
    }

    /// Get number of available processes/ranks
    pub fn get_size() -> i32 {
        get_world().map(|w| w.size()).unwrap_or(1)
    }

    /// Use the MPI backend
    ///
    /// # Notes
    ///
    /// You must have MPI installed for this to work, and you must call the program with
    /// `mpirun <executable>`, or bad things will happen.
    ///
    /// MPI runs an identical program on each process, but gives the program an ID called its
    /// "rank". Only the results of methods on the root process (rank 0) should be
    /// considered valid, as other processes only contain portions of each dataset. To ensure
    /// you don't save or print data at other ranks, use the provided [`is_root()`]
    /// method to check if the process is the root process.
    ///
    /// Once MPI is enabled, it cannot be disabled. If MPI could be toggled (which it can't),
    /// the other processes will still run, but they will be independent of the root process
    /// and will no longer communicate with it. The root process stores no data, so it would
    /// be difficult (and convoluted) to get the results which were already processed via
    /// MPI.
    ///
    /// Additionally, MPI must be enabled at the beginning of a script, at least before any
    /// other `laddu` functions are called.
    ///
    /// If [`use_mpi()`] is called multiple times, the subsequent calls will have no
    /// effect.
    ///
    /// <div class="warning">
    ///
    /// You **must** call [`finalize_mpi()`] before your program exits for MPI to terminate
    /// smoothly.
    ///
    /// </div>
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```ignore
    /// fn main() {
    ///     laddu_core::use_mpi();
    ///
    ///     // ... your code here ...
    ///
    ///     laddu_core::finalize_mpi();
    /// }
    ///
    /// ```
    pub fn use_mpi(trigger: bool) {
        if trigger {
            USE_MPI.store(true, Ordering::SeqCst);
            MPI_UNIVERSE.get_or_init(|| {
                #[cfg(feature = "rayon")]
                let threading = mpi::Threading::Funneled;
                #[cfg(not(feature = "rayon"))]
                let threading = mpi::Threading::Single;
                let (universe, _threading) = mpi::initialize_with_threading(threading).unwrap();
                let world = universe.world();
                if world.size() == 1 {
                    eprintln!("Warning: MPI is enabled, but only one process is available. MPI will not be used, but single-CPU parallelism may still be used if enabled.");
                    finalize_mpi();
                    USE_MPI.store(false, Ordering::SeqCst);
                    RwLock::new(None)
                } else {
                    RwLock::new(Some(universe))
                }
            });
        }
    }

    /// Drop the MPI universe and finalize MPI at the end of a program
    ///
    /// This function will do nothing if MPI is not initialized.
    ///
    /// <div class="warning">
    ///
    /// This should only be called once and should be called at the end of all `laddu`-related
    /// function calls. This must be called at the end of any program which uses MPI.
    ///
    /// </div>
    pub fn finalize_mpi() {
        if get_world().is_some() {
            if let Some(universe_lock) = MPI_UNIVERSE.get() {
                let mut universe = universe_lock.write();
                *universe = None;
            }
        }
        USE_MPI.store(false, Ordering::SeqCst);
    }

    /// Check if MPI backend is enabled
    pub fn using_mpi() -> bool {
        USE_MPI.load(Ordering::SeqCst)
    }

    fn counts_displs(size: usize, total: usize, stride: usize) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
        let mut counts = vec![0i32; size];
        let mut displs = vec![0i32; size];
        if size == 0 {
            return (counts, displs);
        }
        let base = total / size;
        let remainder = total % size;
        let mut offset = 0i32;
        for rank in 0..size {
            let n = if rank < remainder { base + 1 } else { base };
            let scaled = (n * stride) as i32;
            counts[rank] = scaled;
            displs[rank] = offset;
            offset += scaled;
        }
        (counts, displs)
    }

    #[inline]
    fn rank_local_from_global(i_global: usize, size: usize, total: usize) -> (usize, usize) {
        assert!(size > 0, "Communicator must have at least one rank");
        assert!(total > 0, "Cannot map global indices when dataset is empty");
        assert!(
            i_global < total,
            "Global index {} out of bounds for {} events",
            i_global,
            total
        );
        let base = total / size;
        let remainder = total % size;
        let big_block = base + 1;
        let threshold = remainder * big_block;
        if i_global < threshold {
            let rank = i_global / big_block;
            let local = i_global % big_block;
            (rank, local)
        } else {
            let adjusted = i_global - threshold;
            let rank = remainder + adjusted / base;
            let local = adjusted % base;
            (rank, local)
        }
    }

    /// Canonical partitioning information for distributing a dataset across MPI ranks.
    #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
    pub struct Partition {
        counts: Vec<i32>,
        displs: Vec<i32>,
        total: usize,
    }

    impl Partition {
        /// Build a new distribution for `total` items across `size` ranks.
        pub fn new(size: usize, total: usize) -> Self {
            assert!(size > 0, "Communicator must have at least one rank");
            let (counts, displs) = counts_displs(size, total, 1);
            Self {
                counts,
                displs,
                total,
            }
        }

        /// Total number of items tracked by this partition.
        pub fn total(&self) -> usize {
            self.total
        }

        /// Number of ranks described by this partition.
        pub fn n_ranks(&self) -> usize {
            self.counts.len()
        }

        /// Number of items assigned to `rank`.
        pub fn len_for_rank(&self, rank: usize) -> usize {
            self.counts[rank] as usize
        }

        /// Starting global index for `rank`.
        pub fn start_for_rank(&self, rank: usize) -> usize {
            self.displs[rank] as usize
        }

        /// Contiguous global range owned by `rank`.
        pub fn range_for_rank(&self, rank: usize) -> Range<usize> {
            let start = self.start_for_rank(rank);
            start..start + self.len_for_rank(rank)
        }

        /// Determine the owning rank and local index for a global dataset index.
        pub fn owner_of(&self, global_index: usize) -> (usize, usize) {
            assert!(
                self.total > 0,
                "Cannot map global indices when dataset is empty"
            );
            rank_local_from_global(global_index, self.n_ranks(), self.total)
        }

        /// Convert into raw `(counts, displacements)` buffers.
        pub fn into_raw(self) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
            (self.counts, self.displs)
        }
    }

    /// A trait including some useful auxiliary methods for MPI
    pub trait LadduMPI {
        /// Get the process at the root rank
        fn process_at_root(&self) -> Process<'_>;
        /// Check if the current rank is the root rank
        fn is_root(&self) -> bool;
        /// Gather arbitrarily-sized local slices into a buffer ordered by the
        /// canonical dataset partition.
        fn all_gather_partitioned<T: Equivalence + Default + Clone>(
            &self,
            local: &[T],
            total: usize,
            stride: Option<usize>,
        ) -> Vec<T>;
        /// Gather local slices into a buffer using explicit
        /// `(counts, displacements)` in element units.
        fn all_gather_with_counts<T: Equivalence + Default + Clone>(
            &self,
            local: &[T],
            counts: &[i32],
            displs: &[i32],
        ) -> Vec<T>;
        /// Gather batches corresponding to arbitrary global indices while
        /// preserving the order of `global_indices`.
        fn all_gather_batched_partitioned<T: Equivalence + Default + Clone>(
            &self,
            local: &[T],
            global_indices: &[usize],
            total: usize,
            stride: Option<usize>,
        ) -> Vec<T>;
        /// Return the `(rank, local_index)` pair owning `global_index` in a
        /// dataset containing `total` events.
        fn owner_of_global_index(&self, global_index: usize, total: usize) -> (i32, usize);
        /// Translate a list of global dataset indices into the corresponding
        /// local indices owned by this rank, preserving their original order.
        fn locals_from_globals(&self, global_indices: &[usize], total: usize) -> Vec<usize>;
        /// Get the counts/displacements for partitioning a buffer of length
        /// `buf_len`
        fn get_counts_displs(&self, buf_len: usize) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>);
        /// Build a [`Partition`] describing how `total` items are distributed
        /// across ranks.
        fn partition(&self, total: usize) -> Partition;
        /// Get the counts/displacements for partitioning a nested buffer (like
        /// a [`Vec<Vec<T>>`]). If the internal vectors all have the same length
        /// `internal_len` and there are `unflattened_len` elements in the
        /// outer vector, then this will give the correct counts/displacements for a
        /// flattened version of the nested buffer.
        fn get_flattened_counts_displs(
            &self,
            unflattened_len: usize,
            internal_len: usize,
        ) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>);
    }

    impl LadduMPI for SimpleCommunicator {
        fn process_at_root(&self) -> Process<'_> {
            self.process_at_rank(crate::mpi::ROOT_RANK)
        }

        fn is_root(&self) -> bool {
            self.rank() == crate::mpi::ROOT_RANK
        }

        /// Gather arbitrarily-sized local slices into a buffer ordered by the
        /// canonical dataset partition.
        fn all_gather_partitioned<T: Equivalence + Default + Clone>(
            &self,
            local: &[T],
            total: usize,
            stride: Option<usize>,
        ) -> Vec<T> {
            let size = self.size() as usize;
            let stride = stride.unwrap_or(1);
            assert!(stride > 0, "Stride must be greater than zero");
            let mut out = vec![T::default(); total * stride];
            if total == 0 || size == 0 {
                return out;
            }
            let (counts, displs) = counts_displs(size, total, stride);
            {
                let mut partition = PartitionMut::new(&mut out, counts, displs);
                self.all_gather_varcount_into(local, &mut partition);
            }
            out
        }

        fn all_gather_with_counts<T: Equivalence + Default + Clone>(
            &self,
            local: &[T],
            counts: &[i32],
            displs: &[i32],
        ) -> Vec<T> {
            assert_eq!(
                counts.len(),
                displs.len(),
                "Counts and displacements must have the same length"
            );
            assert_eq!(
                counts.len(),
                self.size() as usize,
                "Counts/displacements must match communicator size"
            );
            let total = counts.iter().map(|count| *count as usize).sum();
            let mut out = vec![T::default(); total];
            {
                let mut partition = PartitionMut::new(&mut out, counts.to_vec(), displs.to_vec());
                self.all_gather_varcount_into(local, &mut partition);
            }
            out
        }

        /// Gather batches corresponding to arbitrary global indices while
        /// preserving the order of `global_indices`.
        fn all_gather_batched_partitioned<T: Equivalence + Default + Clone>(
            &self,
            local: &[T],
            global_indices: &[usize],
            total: usize,
            stride: Option<usize>,
        ) -> Vec<T> {
            let size = self.size() as usize;
            let stride = stride.unwrap_or(1);
            assert!(stride > 0, "Stride must be greater than zero");
            let n_indices = global_indices.len();
            let mut gathered = vec![T::default(); n_indices * stride];
            if n_indices == 0 || size == 0 {
                return gathered;
            }

            assert!(
                total > 0,
                "Cannot gather batched data from an empty dataset"
            );

            let partition = Partition::new(size, total);
            let mut locals_by_rank = vec![Vec::<usize>::new(); size];
            let mut targets_by_rank = vec![Vec::<usize>::new(); size];
            for (position, &global_index) in global_indices.iter().enumerate() {
                let (rank, local_index) = partition.owner_of(global_index);
                locals_by_rank[rank].push(local_index);
                targets_by_rank[rank].push(position);
            }

            let mut counts = vec![0i32; size];
            let mut displs = vec![0i32; size];
            for rank in 0..size {
                counts[rank] = (locals_by_rank[rank].len() * stride) as i32;
                displs[rank] = if rank == 0 {
                    0
                } else {
                    displs[rank - 1] + counts[rank - 1]
                };
            }

            let expected_local = locals_by_rank[self.rank() as usize].len() * stride;
            debug_assert_eq!(
                local.len(),
                expected_local,
                "Local buffer length does not match expected gathered size for rank {}",
                self.rank()
            );

            {
                let mut partition =
                    PartitionMut::new(&mut gathered, counts.clone(), displs.clone());
                self.all_gather_varcount_into(local, &mut partition);
            }

            let mut result = vec![T::default(); n_indices * stride];
            for rank in 0..size {
                let mut cursor = displs[rank] as usize;
                for &target in &targets_by_rank[rank] {
                    let dst = target * stride;
                    result[dst..(stride + dst)]
                        .clone_from_slice(&gathered[cursor..(stride + cursor)]);
                    cursor += stride;
                }
            }

            result
        }

        fn owner_of_global_index(&self, global_index: usize, total: usize) -> (i32, usize) {
            let partition = Partition::new(self.size() as usize, total);
            let (rank, local) = partition.owner_of(global_index);
            (rank as i32, local)
        }

        /// Translate a list of global dataset indices into the corresponding
        /// local indices owned by this rank, preserving their original order.
        fn locals_from_globals(&self, global_indices: &[usize], total: usize) -> Vec<usize> {
            let partition = Partition::new(self.size() as usize, total);
            let this_rank = self.rank() as usize;
            let mut locals = Vec::new();
            if total == 0 {
                return locals;
            }
            for &global_index in global_indices {
                let (rank, local_index) = partition.owner_of(global_index);
                if rank == this_rank {
                    locals.push(local_index);
                }
            }
            locals
        }
        fn get_counts_displs(&self, buf_len: usize) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
            self.partition(buf_len).into_raw()
        }

        fn partition(&self, total: usize) -> Partition {
            Partition::new(self.size() as usize, total)
        }

        fn get_flattened_counts_displs(
            &self,
            unflattened_len: usize,
            internal_len: usize,
        ) -> (Vec<i32>, Vec<i32>) {
            let mut counts = vec![0; self.size() as usize];
            let mut displs = vec![0; self.size() as usize];
            let chunk_size = unflattened_len / self.size() as usize;
            let surplus = unflattened_len % self.size() as usize;
            for i in 0..self.size() as usize {
                counts[i] = if i < surplus {
                    (chunk_size + 1) * internal_len
                } else {
                    chunk_size * internal_len
                } as i32;
                displs[i] = if i == 0 {
                    0
                } else {
                    displs[i - 1] + counts[i - 1]
                };
            }
            (counts, displs)
        }
    }
}

use thiserror::Error;

/// Core amplitude traits, identifiers, and expression-facing compatibility exports.
pub mod amplitude;
/// Methods for loading and manipulating event datasets.
pub mod data;
/// Execution-policy and thread-pool coordination helpers.
pub mod execution;
/// Expression trees, compiled diagnostics, and evaluator interfaces.
pub mod expression;
/// Kinematic frame helpers and angle containers.
pub mod kinematics;
/// Special functions and numerical helpers.
pub mod math;
/// Parameter handles, identifiers, and assembled parameter storage.
pub mod parameters;
/// Quantum-number helpers and discrete analysis enums.
pub mod quantum;
/// Reaction topology, particles, and decay-node helpers.
pub mod reaction;
/// Structures for manipulating the cache and free parameters.
pub mod resources;
/// Event variables derived from reactions and particle selections.
pub mod variables;
/// Three- and four-vector types used throughout the library.
pub mod vectors;
/// Useful traits for all crate structs
pub mod traits {
    pub use crate::{amplitude::Amplitude, variables::Variable};
}

pub use amplitude::{Amplitude, AmplitudeID, AmplitudeSemanticField, AmplitudeSemanticKey};

#[cfg(feature = "execution-context-prototype")]
pub use crate::execution::{ExecutionContext, ScratchAllocator, ThreadPolicy};
pub use crate::{
    data::{
        BinnedDataset, Dataset, DatasetMetadata, DatasetReadOptions, Event, EventData, OwnedEvent,
    },
    execution::ThreadPoolManager,
    expression::{CompiledExpression, CompiledExpressionNode, Evaluator, Expression},
    kinematics::{DecayAngles, FrameAxes, RestFrame},
    parameters::{Parameter, ParameterID, ParameterMap, Parameters},
    quantum::{
        allowed_projections, AllowedPartialWave, AngularMomentum, Channel, Charge, Frame, Isospin,
        OrbitalAngularMomentum, Parity, PartialWave, ParticleProperties, Projection, Reflectivity,
        RuleSet, SelectionRules, SpinState, Statistics,
    },
    reaction::{
        Decay, Particle, ParticleGraph, ParticleSource, Production, Reaction, ReactionTopology,
        ResolvedTwoToTwo, TwoToTwoReaction,
    },
    resources::{
        Cache, ComplexMatrixID, ComplexScalarID, ComplexVectorID, MatrixID, Resources, ScalarID,
        VectorID,
    },
    variables::{
        Angles, CosTheta, IntoP4Selection, Mandelstam, Mass, P4Selection, Phi, PolAngle,
        PolMagnitude, Polarization,
    },
    vectors::{Vec3, Vec4},
};

/// The mathematical constant $`\pi`$.
pub const PI: f64 = std::f64::consts::PI;

/// A [`Result`] type alias for [`LadduError`]s.
pub type LadduResult<T> = Result<T, LadduError>;

/// The error type used by all `laddu` internal methods
#[derive(Error, Debug)]
pub enum LadduError {
    /// An alias for [`std::io::Error`].
    #[error(transparent)]
    IOError(#[from] std::io::Error),
    /// An alias for [`parquet::errors::ParquetError`].
    #[error(transparent)]
    ParquetError(#[from] parquet::errors::ParquetError),
    /// An alias for [`arrow::error::ArrowError`].
    #[error(transparent)]
    ArrowError(#[from] arrow::error::ArrowError),
    /// An alias for [`shellexpand::LookupError`].
    #[error(transparent)]
    LookupError(#[from] shellexpand::LookupError<std::env::VarError>),
    /// An error which occurs when the user tries to register two amplitudes by the same name.
    #[error("An amplitude by the name \"{name}\" is already registered!")]
    RegistrationError {
        /// Name of amplitude which is already registered
        name: String,
    },
    /// An error which occurs when the user tries to select an unregistered amplitude tag.
    #[error("No registered amplitude with tag \"{name}\"!")]
    AmplitudeNotFoundError {
        /// Name of amplitude which failed lookup
        name: String,
    },
    /// An error which occurs when the user tries to parse an invalid string of text, typically
    /// into an enum variant.
    #[error("Failed to parse string: \"{name}\" does not correspond to a valid \"{object}\"!")]
    ParseError {
        /// The string which was parsed
        name: String,
        /// The name of the object it failed to parse into
        object: String,
    },
    /// An error returned by internal bitcode serialization
    #[error(transparent)]
    BitcodeError(#[from] bitcode::Error),
    /// An error returned by the Python pickle (de)serializer
    #[error(transparent)]
    PickleError(#[from] serde_pickle::Error),
    /// An error which occurs when parameter definitions conflict or clash.
    #[error("Parameter \"{name}\" conflict: {reason}")]
    ParameterConflict {
        /// Name of parameter
        name: String,
        /// Description of conflict
        reason: String,
    },
    /// An error which occurs when attempting to use an unregistered or unnamed parameter.
    #[error("Parameter \"{name}\" could not be registered: {reason}")]
    UnregisteredParameter {
        /// Name of parameter
        name: String,
        /// Reason for failure
        reason: String,
    },
    /// An error which occurs during execution-context setup.
    #[error("Execution context setup failed: {reason}")]
    ExecutionContextError {
        /// Description of setup failure
        reason: String,
    },
    /// An error type for [`rayon`] thread pools
    #[cfg(feature = "rayon")]
    #[error(transparent)]
    ThreadPoolError(#[from] rayon::ThreadPoolBuildError),
    /// An error type for [`numpy`]-related conversions
    #[cfg(feature = "numpy")]
    #[error(transparent)]
    NumpyError(#[from] numpy::FromVecError),
    /// A required column was not found in the input
    #[error("Required column \"{name}\" was not found in the dataset")]
    MissingColumn {
        /// Name of the missing column
        name: String,
    },
    /// A column has an unsupported type
    #[error("Column \"{name}\" has unsupported type \"{datatype}\"")]
    InvalidColumnType {
        /// Column name
        name: String,
        /// Detected data type
        datatype: String,
    },
    /// A value has an unexpected length.
    #[error("{context} length mismatch: expected {expected}, received {actual}")]
    LengthMismatch {
        /// Description of what length was validated.
        context: String,
        /// Expected length.
        expected: usize,
        /// Actual length observed.
        actual: usize,
    },
    /// A duplicate name was provided for p4 or aux data
    #[error("Duplicate {category} name \"{name}\" provided")]
    DuplicateName {
        /// Category (p4 or aux)
        category: &'static str,
        /// Duplicate name
        name: String,
    },
    /// An unknown name was referenced (e.g., for boosts)
    #[error("Unknown {category} name \"{name}\"")]
    UnknownName {
        /// Category (p4 or aux)
        category: &'static str,
        /// Name that could not be resolved
        name: String,
    },
    /// A particle is missing the requested property
    #[error("Particle is missing the requested property \"{property}\"")]
    MissingParticleProperty {
        /// The name of the missing property
        property: &'static str,
    },
    /// A custom fallback error for errors too complex or too infrequent to warrant their own error
    /// category.
    #[error("{0}")]
    Custom(String),
}

/// Validate the number of free parameters supplied to a public entrypoint.
pub fn validate_free_parameter_len(input_len: usize, expected_len: usize) -> LadduResult<()> {
    if input_len != expected_len {
        return Err(LadduError::LengthMismatch {
            context: "free parameter vector".to_string(),
            expected: expected_len,
            actual: input_len,
        });
    }
    Ok(())
}

impl Clone for LadduError {
    // This is a little hack because error types are rarely cloneable, but I need to store them in a
    // cloneable box for minimizers and MCMC methods
    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
        let err_string = self.to_string();
        LadduError::Custom(err_string)
    }
}

#[cfg(feature = "python")]
impl From<LadduError> for PyErr {
    fn from(err: LadduError) -> Self {
        use pyo3::exceptions::*;
        let err_string = err.to_string();
        match err {
            LadduError::LookupError(_)
            | LadduError::RegistrationError { .. }
            | LadduError::AmplitudeNotFoundError { .. }
            | LadduError::ParseError { .. } => PyValueError::new_err(err_string),
            LadduError::ParquetError(_)
            | LadduError::ArrowError(_)
            | LadduError::IOError(_)
            | LadduError::BitcodeError(_)
            | LadduError::PickleError(_) => PyIOError::new_err(err_string),
            LadduError::MissingColumn { .. } | LadduError::UnknownName { .. } => {
                PyKeyError::new_err(err_string)
            }
            LadduError::InvalidColumnType { .. }
            | LadduError::LengthMismatch { .. }
            | LadduError::DuplicateName { .. }
            | LadduError::ParameterConflict { .. }
            | LadduError::UnregisteredParameter { .. } => PyValueError::new_err(err_string),
            LadduError::ExecutionContextError { .. } => PyRuntimeError::new_err(err_string),
            LadduError::Custom(_) => PyRuntimeError::new_err(err_string),
            #[cfg(feature = "rayon")]
            LadduError::ThreadPoolError(_) => PyRuntimeError::new_err(err_string),
            #[cfg(feature = "numpy")]
            LadduError::NumpyError(_) => PyValueError::new_err(err_string),
            LadduError::MissingParticleProperty { .. } => PyValueError::new_err(err_string),
        }
    }
}