astack/

lib.rs

//! `astack` offers a [`Stack`] data structure with fixed capacity capable of
//! fast LIFO operations.
//!
//! The crate contains:
//! * A [`Stack`] struct, the main object used to perform TOS operations.
//! * A [`stack`] macro, used to conveniently construct a new [`Stack`].
//! * A [`StackError`] used by the [`Stack`] to signal an invalid operation has occurred.
//! * A [`StackIntoIter`] struct used to iterate over the values of a [`Stack`].
//!
//! `astack` may be used in both std and non-std environments, and is therefore
//! considered platform-agnostic. The crate does not require an allocator at all!
//!
//! You can optionally enable the `std` feature to use some additional features,
//! such as the `std::error::Error` implementation for [`StackError`].
//!
//! # Examples
//!
//! ## Creating an empty `Stack`
//!
//! ```
//! use astack::{stack, Stack};
//!
//! // Through the Stack::new() method
//! let stack = Stack::<u64, 10>::new();
//!
//! // Through the stack! macro
//! let stack = stack![u64; 10];
//! ```
//!
//! ## Creating a `Stack` with already some items inside
//!
//! ```
//! use astack::stack;
//!
//! // Through the stack! macro
//! let stack = stack! {
//!     [u64; 10] = [1, 2, 3]
//! };
//! ```
//!
//! ## Creating a `Stack` filled with items
//!
//! ```
//! use astack::Stack;
//!
//! // A Stack filled with one single Copy item.
//! let stack_of_44 = Stack::<u64, 10>::fill_with_copy(44);
//!
//! // A Stack filled with the Default implementation of u64.
//! let stack_of_default = Stack::<u64, 10>::fill_with_default();
//!
//! // A Stack filled with a value based on the result of a function.
//! let stack = Stack::<String, 10>::fill_with_fn(|i| {
//!     format!("Value n. {}", i)
//! });
//! ```
//!
//! ## Common `Stack` operations
//!
//! ```
//! use astack::stack;
//!
//! // Create a new Stack.
//! let mut stack = stack! {
//!     [i32; 4] = [10, 20, 30]
//! };
//!
//! // Add an item as TOS. This returns Err if the stack if full.
//! stack.push(40).unwrap();
//!
//! // Pop TOS. This returns None if the stack is empty.
//! let last_value = stack.pop().unwrap();
//!
//! // Get a reference to TOS. This returns None if the stack is empty.
//! assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&30));
//! ```

#![warn(rust_2018_idioms, rust_2024_compatibility)]
#![deny(
    missing_docs,
    missing_debug_implementations,
    unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn,
    clippy::missing_safety_doc,
    clippy::missing_errors_doc,
    clippy::missing_inline_in_public_items,
    clippy::missing_const_for_fn,
    rustdoc::missing_crate_level_docs
)]
#![doc(html_playground_url = "https://play.rust-lang.org")]
#![no_std]

// https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/cargo/reference/features.html#feature-unification
#[cfg(feature = "std")]
extern crate std;

mod iter;

use core::{fmt, hash, mem, ptr};
pub use iter::StackIntoIter;

#[doc(hidden)]
#[macro_export(local_inner_macros)]
macro_rules! count_args {
    ($_:expr,) => { 1 };
    ($_:expr, $($others:expr,)+) => {
        count_args!($_,) + count_args!($($others,)*)
    }
}

/// A macro for conveniently creating a [`Stack`].
///
/// [`stack`] is used for 2 purposes:
/// * Create an empty [`Stack`].
/// * Create a [`Stack`] and push some items onto it.
///
/// The syntax is similar to one used to declare an array. If you wanted to create
/// an array of `i32` (filled with `0`s) you'd have to go like this:
/// ```
/// let arr: [i32; 10] = [0; 10];
/// ```
///
/// To create an empty [`Stack`], you can just declare your `T` and `N` in the macro
/// like this:
/// ```
/// use astack::stack;
/// let stack = stack![i32; 10];
/// ```
///
/// or, if you want to both create and push some values at the same time, you can
/// use the same array syntax:
/// ```
/// use astack::stack;
/// let stack = stack! {
///     [i32; 10] = [1, 2, 3]
/// };
/// ```
///
/// Note that in the last scenario [`stack`] checks at compile time if the number
/// of values passed to the macro exceeds the capacity specified.
///
/// # Macro expansion
///
/// The code
/// ```ignore
/// let stack = stack![i32; 10];
/// ```
///
/// expands to
/// ```ignore
/// let stack = Stack::<i32, 10>::new();
/// ```
///
/// On the other hand, the code
/// ```ignore
/// let stack = stack! {
///     [i32; 10] = [1, 2, 3]
/// };
/// ```
///
/// roughly expands to
/// ```ignore
/// let stack = unsafe {
///     let mut stack = Stack::<i32, 10>::new();
///     stack.push_unchecked(1);
///     stack.push_unchecked(2);
///     stack.push_unchecked(3);
///     stack
/// };
/// ```
#[macro_export(local_inner_macros)]
macro_rules! stack {
    ($T:ty; $N:expr) => {
        $crate::Stack::<$T, $N>::new()
    };
    ([$T:ty; $N:expr] = [$($expr:expr),+ $(,)?]) => {{
        // Compile-time error rather than runtime error
        const _: () = core::prelude::rust_2021::assert!(
            count_args!($($expr,)*) <= $N,
            core::prelude::rust_2021::concat!(
                "The number of items exceeds the capacity specified, which is ",
                $N
            )
        );

        let mut stack = stack![$T; $N];

        // SAFETY: we have asserted before that we have enouch capacity
        $( unsafe { stack.push_unchecked($expr) }; )*
        stack
    }};
}

/// The type returned by [`Stack`]'s checked operations if they fail.
///
/// # The `std` feature
///
/// If the `std` feature is enable, [`StackError`] implements `std::error::Error`.
#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug)]
pub enum StackError {
    /// Stack overflow occurs when there is not enough capacity to perform a stack
    /// operation. Examples of that are [`push`][Stack::push] and [`extend`][Stack::extend].
    Overflow,
    /// Stack underflow occurs when there are not enough items to perform a stack
    /// operation. Examples of that are [`rotate_tos`][Stack::rotate_tos] and
    /// [`swap_tos`][Stack::swap_tos].
    ///
    /// From Wikipedia: For integers, the term "integer underflow" typically refers to a
    /// special kind of integer overflow or integer wraparound condition whereby the result
    /// of subtraction would result in a value less than the minimum allowed for a given
    /// integer type.
    Underflow,
}

impl fmt::Display for StackError {
    #[inline]
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
    }
}

/// This implementation is only available when the `std` feature is
/// enabled.
#[cfg(feature = "std")]
impl std::error::Error for StackError {}

/// A data structure with fixed capacity aimed at fast LIFO operations.
///
/// The [`Stack`] excels in working with the TOS, also known as the top of the stack.
/// It is generic over any type `T`, and offers some implementations, such
/// as [`Clone`], [`Debug`], [`PartialEq`] and [`Hash`] if `T` supports it as well.
///
/// The [`Stack`] offers three ways to manipulate data:
/// * Checked methods, such as [`push`][Stack::push] and [`pop`][Stack::pop], which
/// return an [`Option`] or a [`Result`]. A bit slower but *much* safer. 👍
/// * `_panicking` methods, such as [`push_panicking`][Stack::push_panicking]
/// and [`pop_panicking`][Stack::pop_panicking], which panic if the operation fails.
/// * `_unchecked` methods, such as [`push_unchecked`][Stack::push_unchecked]
/// and [`pop_unchecked`][Stack::pop_unchecked] which cause [undefined behavior]
/// if the operation fails. The fastest choice but the unsafest! ⚠️
///
/// # How it works
///
/// A [`Stack`] is no more than a fixed size array of [`MaybeUninit`] and an [`usize`]
/// that keeps track of the items count and is in charge of bound checking.
/// The usage of [`MaybeUninit`] enhances the performance of the data structure,
/// as it only allocates when needed. The [`Stack`] makes usage of [`unsafe`] code
/// internally to handle data through raw pointers, and further increase the
/// speed of read/write/swap operations.
///
/// # Safety
///
/// Users are recommended to rely on the checked methods or the `_panicking` ones,
/// even though the second category should be used for testing and teaching purposes,
/// as it does not allow for proper error handling by panicking on error.
/// If deemed necessary, `_unchecked` (but faster) versions of the safe methods
/// are available. These ones skip the safety checks, but will result in
/// *[undefined behavior]* if the user does not respect the [safety contract].
///
/// If the user is certain that the safety contract is guaranteed to be respected,
/// the `_unchecked` versions are available for use. However, as mentioned in the
/// beginning of this paragraph, most of the time users will be happy enough to
/// rely on the safe counterparts and trade off a bit of performance to avoid UB.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ## Creating an empty `Stack`
///
/// ```
/// use astack::{stack, Stack};
///
/// // Through the Stack::new() method
/// let stack = Stack::<u64, 10>::new();
///
/// // Through the stack! macro
/// let stack = stack![u64; 10];
/// ```
///
/// ## Creating a `Stack` with already some items inside
///
/// ```
/// use astack::stack;
///
/// // Through the stack! macro
/// let stack = stack! {
///     [u64; 10] = [1, 2, 3]
/// };
/// ```
///
/// ## Creating a `Stack` filled with items
///
/// ```
/// use astack::Stack;
///
/// // A Stack filled with one single Copy item.
/// let stack_of_44 = Stack::<u64, 10>::fill_with_copy(44);
///
/// // A Stack filled with the Default implementation of `T`.
/// let stack_of_default = Stack::<u64, 10>::fill_with_default();
///
/// // A Stack filled with a value based on the result of a function.
/// let stack = Stack::<String, 10>::fill_with_fn(|i| {
///     format!("Value n. {}", i)
/// });
/// ```
///
/// ## List of all checked `Stack` operations
/// | Name | Description |
/// |---|---|
/// | [`push`][Stack::push] | Push an item |
/// | [`extend`][Stack::extend] | Push many items |
/// | [`extend_array`][Stack::extend_array] | Push many items from an array |
/// | [`pop`][Stack::pop] | Pop and return an item |
/// | [`cut`][Stack::cut] | Pop and return many items |
/// | [`tos`][Stack::tos] | Get a reference to TOS |
/// | [`tos_mut`][Stack::tos_mut] | Get a mutable reference to TOS |
/// | [`truncate`][Stack::truncate] | Pop and discard many items |
/// | [`swap_tos`][Stack::swap_tos] | Replace TOS with an item |
/// | [`rotate_tos`][Stack::rotate_tos] | Swap TOS with TOS - 1: |
///
/// [`MaybeUninit`]: core::mem::MaybeUninit
/// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
/// [safety contract]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/keyword.unsafe.html
/// [`Debug`]: core::fmt::Debug
/// [`Hash`]: core::hash::Hash
/// [`unsafe`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html
pub struct Stack<T, const N: usize> {
    items: [mem::MaybeUninit<T>; N],
    len: usize,
}

impl<T, const N: usize> Stack<T, N> {
    /// Returns a new empty [`Stack`] with its items uninitialized.
    ///
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with [`Copy`] items, see
    /// [`fill_with_copy`][Stack::fill_with_copy].
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with [`Default`] items, see
    /// [`fill_with_default`][Stack::fill_with_default].
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with the value returned by a function,
    /// see [`fill_with_fn`][Stack::fill_with_fn].
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{Stack, stack};
    /// // Create an empty Stack which can hold up to 10 String.
    /// let stack1 = Stack::<String, 10>::new();
    ///
    /// // You can achieve the same result with the stack! macro.
    /// let same_as_stack1 = stack![String; 10];
    ///
    /// // Both stacks do not have initialized items.
    /// assert!(stack1.is_empty() && same_as_stack1.is_empty());
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub const fn new() -> Self {
        Self {
            // SAFETY: The `assume_init` is safe because the type we are claiming
            // to have initialized here is a bunch of `MaybeUninit`s, which do not
            // require initialization.
            // https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/mem/union.MaybeUninit.html#initializing-an-array-element-by-element
            items: unsafe { mem::MaybeUninit::uninit().assume_init() },
            len: 0,
        }
    }

    /// Returns a [`Stack`] filled with `item`. Only works if `item` implements [`Copy`].
    /// This is optimized for types which implement [`Copy`].
    ///
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with [`Default`] items, see
    /// [`fill_with_default`][Stack::fill_with_default].
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with the value returned by a function,
    /// see [`fill_with_fn`][Stack::fill_with_fn].
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```
    /// use astack::Stack;
    ///
    /// // A stack full of 42.
    /// let stack_of_42 = Stack::<u8, 50>::fill_with_copy(42);
    /// assert!(stack_of_42.is_full());
    /// assert_eq!(stack_of_42.tos(), Some(&42));
    ///
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [this link]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.array.html
    #[inline]
    pub const fn fill_with_copy(item: T) -> Self
    where
        T: Copy,
    {
        Self {
            items: [mem::MaybeUninit::new(item); N],
            len: N,
        }
    }

    /// Returns a [`Stack`] filled with the item returned by `f`. This is useful
    /// to create a [`Stack`] out of non-[`Copy`] and non-[`Default`] items.
    /// The `f` takes as input a [`usize`] which is the i-th index
    ///
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with [`Copy`] items, see
    /// [`fill_with_copy`][Stack::fill_with_copy].
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with [`Default`] items, see
    /// [`fill_with_default`][Stack::fill_with_default].
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::Stack;
    ///
    /// fn long_computation(i: usize) -> String {
    ///     // Perform a long and heavy computation...
    ///     format!("Item n. {}", i)
    /// }
    ///
    /// let stack = Stack::<String, 32>::fill_with_fn(long_computation);
    /// assert!(stack.is_full());
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&String::from("Item n. 31")));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn fill_with_fn<F>(mut f: F) -> Self
    where
        F: FnMut(usize) -> T,
    {
        Self {
            items: core::array::from_fn(|i| mem::MaybeUninit::new(f(i))),
            len: N,
        }
    }

    /// Returns a [`Stack`] filled with the default value for `T`.
    ///
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with [`Copy`] items, see
    /// [`fill_with_copy`][Stack::fill_with_copy].
    /// * If you want to get a [`Stack`] filled with the value returned by a function,
    /// see [`fill_with_fn`][Stack::fill_with_fn].
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::Stack;
    ///
    /// // A Stack filled with empty Strings
    /// let stack = Stack::<String, 4>::fill_with_default();
    /// assert!(stack.is_full());
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&String::default()));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn fill_with_default() -> Self
    where
        T: Default,
    {
        Self::fill_with_fn(|_| T::default())
    }

    /// Builds a [`Stack`] from an array of [`MaybeUninit`] and a `len`,
    /// representing the count of initialized items.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Building a [`Stack`] using [`from_raw_parts`][Stack::from_raw_parts] is
    /// *[undefined behavior]* if one of the following occurs:
    /// * `len` is greater than the maximum number of items the stack is allowed to hold.
    ///
    /// * `items[..len]` is composed of uninitialized [`MaybeUninit`].
    ///
    /// # Leaking
    ///
    /// Building a [`Stack`] using [`from_raw_parts`][Stack::from_raw_parts]
    /// will cause a memory leak if both conditions are met:
    ///
    /// * `items[len..N]` is composed of one or more already initialized [`MaybeUninit`].
    ///
    /// * `T` does not implement [`Copy`].
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use std::mem;
    /// use astack::{Stack, stack};
    ///
    /// // Create a stack from raw parts.
    /// // [3, 2, 1, (uninit)]
    /// let items = [
    ///     mem::MaybeUninit::new(3),
    ///     mem::MaybeUninit::new(2),
    ///     mem::MaybeUninit::new(1),
    ///     mem::MaybeUninit::uninit(),
    /// ];
    /// let len = 3;
    ///
    /// // Safety: the items have been initialized in the correct way.
    /// // Safety: len correctly represents the count of initialized items.
    ///
    /// let stack = unsafe { Stack::from_raw_parts(items, len) };
    /// assert_eq!(stack.len(), 3);
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&1));
    /// assert_eq!(stack, stack! {
    ///     [i32; 4] = [3, 2, 1]
    /// });
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [`MaybeUninit`]: core::mem::MaybeUninit
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub const unsafe fn from_raw_parts(items: [mem::MaybeUninit<T>; N], len: usize) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(len <= N);
        Self { items, len }
    }

    /// Returns `true` if the stack does not have initialized items, and is therefore
    /// considered empty.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// // Create an empty stack
    /// let mut stack = stack![i32; 16];
    /// assert!(stack.is_empty());
    ///
    /// // Add items
    /// stack.push_panicking(42);
    /// stack.push_panicking(69);
    ///
    /// // Not the stack is not empty anymore!
    /// assert!(!stack.is_empty());
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub const fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
        self.len == 0
    }

    /// Returns `true` if the stack contains only initialized items, and is therefore
    /// considered full.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// // Create a stack full of custom items.
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [i64; 4] = [567, 212, 890, 90]
    /// };
    /// assert!(stack.is_full());
    ///
    /// // Remove an item.
    /// stack.pop_panicking();
    ///
    /// // Not the stack is not full anymore, even if there are
    /// // still three items inside!
    /// assert!(!stack.is_full());
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub const fn is_full(&self) -> bool {
        self.len >= N
    }

    /// Returns the number of initialized items in the stack, also referred to
    /// as its 'len'.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let stack = stack! {
    ///     [bool; 10] = [false, true, false]
    /// };
    /// assert_eq!(stack.len(), 3);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub const fn len(&self) -> usize {
        self.len
    }

    /// Returns the capacity of the stack. Remember that a [`Stack`] has a fixed
    /// capacity!
    ///
    /// This does not return the *remaining* capacity, but rather the total capacity
    /// that was given as input when the [`Stack`] was created, i.e., the number of
    /// items that the stack is able to hold.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack![i32; 10];
    /// assert_eq!(stack.capacity(), 10);
    ///
    /// // Even if we push some items, the capacity remains the same.
    /// stack.push_panicking(50);
    /// stack.push_panicking(150);
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.len(), 2);
    /// assert_eq!(stack.capacity(), 10);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub const fn capacity(&self) -> usize {
        N
    }

    /// Returns the number of items the stack can push before becoming full.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack![i32; 5];
    /// // The stack is empty now.
    /// assert_eq!(stack.capacity_remaining(), 5);
    ///
    /// // Add some items.
    /// stack.extend_array_panicking([7, 8, 9]);
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.capacity_remaining(), 2);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub const fn capacity_remaining(&self) -> usize {
        N - self.len
    }

    /// Returns a reference to the top of the stack or [`None`] if it is empty.
    /// This does not remove TOS from the stack.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [&str; 3] = ["my", "body!"]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // The top of the stack is the last inserted one!
    /// let tos = stack.tos();
    /// assert_eq!(tos, Some(&"body!"));
    ///
    /// // Remove all items
    /// stack.clear();
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), None);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub const fn tos(&self) -> Option<&T> {
        if self.is_empty() {
            None
        } else {
            Some(unsafe { self.tos_unchecked() })
        }
    }

    /// Returns a reference to the top of the stack. This does not remove TOS from
    /// the stack.
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the stack is empty.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// // An empty stack has no TOS!
    /// let mut stack = stack![i32; 100];
    /// stack.push_panicking(80);
    ///
    /// // This example would panic if there was no TOS.
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos_panicking(), &80);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub const fn tos_panicking(&self) -> &T {
        assert!(
            !self.is_empty(),
            "Called Stack::tos_panicking on an empty stack"
        );
        unsafe { self.tos_unchecked() }
    }

    /// Returns a reference to the top of the stack without checking whether
    /// the latter is empty or not. For a safe alternative see [`tos`][Stack::tos]
    /// or [`tos_panicking`][Stack::tos_panicking]. This does not remove TOS from
    /// the stack.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Calling this method on an empty stack is *[undefined behavior]*
    /// even if the resulting reference is not used.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [&str; 3] = ["my", "body!"]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // We know that the tos exists, so we use the unchecked version.
    /// let tos = unsafe { stack.tos_unchecked() };
    /// assert_eq!(tos, &"body!");
    ///
    /// // Remove all items
    /// stack.clear();
    ///
    /// // The following line will cause undefined behavior
    /// // if commented out!
    /// // let tos = unsafe { stack.tos_unchecked() };
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub const unsafe fn tos_unchecked(&self) -> &T {
        debug_assert!(!self.is_empty());

        // SAFETY: the caller must uphold the safety requirements
        // (self.len must be > 0)
        //
        // The following is the same as SliceIndex::get_unchecked with usize
        // By not using the trait method, we can make this function const
        unsafe { (*self.items.as_ptr().add(self.len - 1)).assume_init_ref() }
    }

    /// Returns a mutable reference to the top of the stack or [`None`]
    /// if it is empty. This does not remove TOS from the stack.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// // A stack with one item: the number 0.
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [i32; 8] = [0]
    /// };
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&0));
    ///
    /// // Increment tos by 10
    /// if let Some(tos) = stack.tos_mut() {
    ///     *tos += 10;
    /// }
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&10));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn tos_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut T> {
        if self.is_empty() {
            None
        } else {
            Some(unsafe { self.tos_mut_unchecked() })
        }
    }

    /// Returns a mutable reference to the top of the stack. This does not remove TOS from
    /// the stack.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the stack is empty.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// // A stack with one item: the number 0.
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [i32; 8] = [0]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // The following like would cause a panic if the stack was empty!
    /// let mut tos = stack.tos_mut_panicking();
    /// assert_eq!(tos, &mut 0);
    ///
    /// // Increment tos by 10
    /// *tos += 10;
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos_mut_panicking(), &mut 10);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn tos_mut_panicking(&mut self) -> &mut T {
        assert!(
            !self.is_empty(),
            "Called Stack::tos_mut_panicking on an empty stack"
        );
        unsafe { self.tos_mut_unchecked() }
    }

    /// Returns a mutable reference to the top of the stack without checking
    /// whether the latter is empty or not. For a safe alternative see
    /// [`tos_mut`][Stack::tos_mut] or [`tos_mut_panicking`][Stack::tos_mut_panicking].
    /// This does not remove TOS from the stack.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Calling this method on an empty stack is *[undefined behavior]*
    /// even if the resulting reference is not used.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [char; 10] = ['a', 'b']
    /// };
    ///
    /// // We know that there must be a tos
    /// // Increment tos ascii value by one
    /// let tos = unsafe { stack.tos_mut_unchecked() };
    /// *tos = (*tos as u8 + 1) as char;
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&'c'));
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn tos_mut_unchecked(&mut self) -> &mut T {
        debug_assert!(!self.is_empty());

        // SAFETY: the caller must uphold the safety requirements
        // (self.len must be > 0)
        //
        // The following is the same as SliceIndex::get_unchecked with usize
        // By not using the trait method, we can make this function const (not yet!)
        unsafe { (*self.items.as_mut_ptr().add(self.len - 1)).assume_init_mut() }
    }

    /// Pushes an item at the top of the stack.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns [`StackError`] if the stack is full.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{Stack, StackError};
    ///
    /// // Create a full stack.
    /// let mut stack = Stack::<i16, 20>::fill_with_copy(100);
    ///
    /// // Try to push `my_lucky_num`.
    /// let my_lucky_num = 16;
    /// assert_eq!(stack.push(my_lucky_num), Err(StackError::Overflow));
    ///
    /// // Make some space for `my_lucky_num`.
    /// stack.clear();
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.push(my_lucky_num), Ok(()));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn push(&mut self, item: T) -> Result<(), StackError> {
        if self.is_full() {
            Err(StackError::Overflow)
        } else {
            unsafe { self.push_unchecked(item) };
            Ok(())
        }
    }

    /// Pushes an item at the top of the stack
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the stack is full.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{Stack, StackError};
    ///
    /// // Create a full stack.
    /// let mut stack = Stack::<i16, 20>::fill_with_copy(100);
    ///
    /// // Try to push `my_lucky_num`.
    /// let my_lucky_num = 16;
    ///
    /// // The following line, if commented out, would cause a panic!
    /// // assert_eq!(stack.push(my_lucky_num), Err(StackError::Overflow));
    ///
    /// // Make some space for `my_lucky_num`.
    /// stack.clear();
    ///
    /// // Now it is safe to push_panicking.
    /// stack.push_panicking(my_lucky_num);
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&16));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn push_panicking(&mut self, item: T) {
        assert!(
            !self.is_full(),
            "Called Stack::push_panicking but the stack is full"
        );
        unsafe { self.push_unchecked(item) };
    }

    /// Pushes an item at the top of the stack, without checking whether the latter
    /// is full or not. For a safe alternative, see [`push`][Stack::push] or
    /// [`push_panicking`][Stack::push_panicking].
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Calling this method if the stack is full is *[undefined behavior]*.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut my_stack1 = stack![i32; 10];
    ///
    /// // Fill the stack manually.
    /// for i in 0..10 {
    ///     unsafe {
    ///         my_stack1.push_unchecked(i);
    ///     }
    /// }
    ///
    /// // The following line if commented out, would result in undefined behavior!
    /// // unsafe { my_stack1.push_unchecked(11); }
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn push_unchecked(&mut self, item: T) {
        debug_assert!(!self.is_full());

        // SAFETY: the caller must uphold the safety requirements (self.len < N).
        //
        // This is similar to Vec::push
        unsafe {
            let end = self.items.as_mut_ptr().add(self.len);
            ptr::write(end, mem::MaybeUninit::new(item));
        }
        self.len += 1;
    }

    /// Removes the top of the stack and returns it, or [`None`] if the stack
    /// is empty.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack!{
    ///     [i32; 16] = [10, 20, 30]
    /// };
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.pop(), Some(30));
    /// assert_eq!(stack.pop(), Some(20));
    /// assert_eq!(stack.pop(), Some(10));
    /// assert_eq!(stack.pop(), None);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn pop(&mut self) -> Option<T> {
        if self.is_empty() {
            None
        } else {
            Some(unsafe { self.pop_unchecked() })
        }
    }

    /// Removes the top of the stack and returns it
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the stack is empty.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack!{
    ///     [i32; 16] = [10, 20, 30]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // Cannot pop_unchecked more than 3 times, otherwise a panic occurs!
    /// assert_eq!(stack.pop_panicking(), 30);
    /// assert_eq!(stack.pop_panicking(), 20);
    /// assert_eq!(stack.pop_panicking(), 10);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn pop_panicking(&mut self) -> T {
        assert!(
            !self.is_empty(),
            "Called Stack::pop_panicking but the stack is empty"
        );
        unsafe { self.pop_unchecked() }
    }

    /// Removes the top of the stack and returns it, without checking whether
    /// the latter is empty or not. For a safe alternative, see [`pop`][Stack::pop]
    /// or [`pop_panicking`][Stack::pop_panicking].
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Calling this method if the stack is empty is *[undefined behavior]*.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [char; 4] = ['a', 'b']
    /// };
    ///
    /// // We know there are exactly 2 items at this point, so it is safe to use
    /// // the unchecked version.
    /// unsafe {
    ///     assert_eq!(stack.pop_unchecked(), 'b');
    ///     assert_eq!(stack.pop_unchecked(), 'a');
    /// }
    ///
    /// // If commented out, the following line results in undefined behavior!
    /// // unsafe { stack.pop_unchecked(); };
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn pop_unchecked(&mut self) -> T {
        debug_assert!(!self.is_empty());

        // SAFETY: the caller must uphold the safety requirements
        // (self.len > 0)
        // (self.items.as_ptr().add(self.len) must be in an initialized state)
        //
        // This is similar to Vec::pop
        self.len -= 1;
        unsafe { ptr::read(self.items.as_ptr().add(self.len)).assume_init() }
    }

    /// Pushes items of an array of length `M` on the stack. This is optimized
    /// for arrays, and should be preferred before [`extend`][Stack::extend]
    /// if you have an array of elements.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns [`StackError`] if the stack cannot hold `M` more items
    /// (`stack.len() + M > stack.capacity()`).
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{stack, StackError};
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [i32; 5] = [1, 2, 3]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // Extend the stack
    /// stack.extend_array([4, 5]).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&5));
    /// assert_eq!(stack, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
    ///
    /// // The stack is full: cannot push more items!
    /// assert_eq!(stack.extend_array([6, 7, 8]), Err(StackError::Overflow));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn extend_array<const M: usize>(&mut self, arr: [T; M]) -> Result<(), StackError> {
        if self.len + M > N {
            Err(StackError::Overflow)
        } else {
            unsafe { self.extend_array_unchecked(arr) };
            Ok(())
        }
    }

    /// Pushes items of an array of length `M` on the stack. This is optimized
    /// for arrays, and should be preferred before [`extend_panicking`][Stack::extend_panicking]
    /// if you have an array of elements.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the stack cannot hold `M` more items
    /// (`stack.len() + M > stack.capacity()`).
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```should_panic
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut characters = stack![char; 4];
    ///
    /// // Extend operations
    /// characters.extend_array_panicking(['x', 'y']);
    /// characters.extend_array_panicking(['z', '_']);
    /// assert_eq!(characters, ['x', 'y', 'z', '_']);
    ///
    /// // The following line makes the program crash!
    /// characters.extend_array_panicking(['a', 'b']);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn extend_array_panicking<const M: usize>(&mut self, arr: [T; M]) {
        assert!(
            self.len + M <= N,
            "Called Stack::push_array_panicking but self.len + M > N"
        );
        unsafe { self.extend_array_unchecked(arr) };
    }

    /// Pushes items of an array of length `M` on the stack. This is optimized
    /// for arrays, and should be preferred before [`extend_panicking`][Stack::extend_panicking]
    /// if you have an array of elements.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Calling this method if `stack.len() + M > stack.capacity()` is
    /// *[undefined behavior]*.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut characters = stack![char; 4];
    ///
    /// // SAFETY: we know that at this point the stack can hold exactly 4 characters
    /// // and therefore it is safe to pass an array of 4 chars.
    /// unsafe {
    ///     characters.extend_array_unchecked(['7', '8', '9', '0']);   
    /// }
    /// assert_eq!(characters, ['7', '8', '9', '0']);
    ///
    /// // The following line, if uncommented, causes undefined behavior.
    /// // characters.extend_array_unchecked(['a', 'b']);
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn extend_array_unchecked<const M: usize>(&mut self, arr: [T; M]) {
        debug_assert!(self.len + M <= N);
        let mut arr = arr.map(|item| mem::MaybeUninit::new(item));

        // SAFETY: this is similar to slice::swap_with_slice. The slices cannot
        // overlap because mutable references are exclusive.
        unsafe {
            ptr::swap_nonoverlapping(
                self.items[self.len..(self.len + M)].as_mut_ptr(),
                arr[..].as_mut_ptr(),
                M,
            );
        }
        self.len += M;
    }

    /// Moves items of an [`IntoIterator`] onto the stack. This is the equivalent of calling
    /// [`push`][Stack::push] for each item of the [`IntoIterator`]. If you want to push
    /// items of an array, see [`extend_array`][Stack::extend_array].
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns [`StackError`] if the stack runs out of capacity while inserting
    /// the items.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{stack, StackError};
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack![u8; 7];
    ///
    /// // This works!
    /// stack.extend(0..2).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(stack, [0, 1]);
    ///
    /// // All types that support IntoIterator can be used with `extend`.
    /// stack.extend("aa".chars().map(|ch| ch as _)).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(stack, [0, 1, 97, 97]);
    ///
    /// // NOT RECOMMENDED: use `extend_array` for that.
    /// stack.extend([4, 5, 6]).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&6));
    ///
    /// // The stack is at full capacity!
    /// assert_eq!(stack.extend(1..), Err(StackError::Overflow));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn extend<I>(&mut self, items: I) -> Result<(), StackError>
    where
        I: IntoIterator<Item = T>,
    {
        items.into_iter().try_for_each(|item| self.push(item))
    }

    /// Moves items of an [`IntoIterator`] onto the stack. This is the equivalent of calling
    /// [`push_panicking`][Stack::push_panicking] for each item of the [`IntoIterator`].
    /// If you want to push items of an array, see
    /// [`extend_array_panicking`][Stack::extend_array_panicking].
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the stack runs out of capacity while inserting the items.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```should_panic
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack![u8; 7];
    ///
    /// // This works!
    /// stack.extend_panicking(0..5);
    /// assert_eq!(stack, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
    ///
    /// // All types that support IntoIterator can be used with `extend_panicking`.
    /// stack.extend_panicking("ee".chars().map(|ch| ch as _));
    /// assert_eq!(stack, [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 101, 101]);
    /// assert!(stack.is_full());
    ///
    /// // The stack is at full capacity! The program panics at the line below.
    /// stack.extend_panicking(1..);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn extend_panicking<I>(&mut self, items: I)
    where
        I: IntoIterator<Item = T>,
    {
        items.into_iter().for_each(|item| self.push_panicking(item));
    }

    /// Moves items of an [`IntoIterator`] onto the stack without checking for overflow.
    /// This is the equivalent of calling [`push_unchecked`][Stack::push_unchecked]
    /// for each item of the [`IntoIterator`]. If you want to push items of an array, see
    /// [`extend_array_unchecked`][Stack::extend_array_unchecked].
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// If the [`IntoIterator`] overflows the capacity of the stack, *[undefined behavior]*
    /// occurs.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack![char; 4];
    ///
    /// // SAFETY: we know there is enough capacity to do this.
    /// unsafe {
    ///     stack.extend_unchecked("lmao".chars());
    /// }
    /// assert_eq!(stack, ['l', 'm', 'a', 'o']);
    ///
    /// // The following line, if commented out, causes undefined behavior!
    /// // unsafe { stack.extend_unchecked("ub".chars()) };
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn extend_unchecked<I>(&mut self, items: I)
    where
        I: IntoIterator<Item = T>,
    {
        // SAFETY: the safety contract of Stack::push_unchecked applies.
        items
            .into_iter()
            .for_each(|item| unsafe { self.push_unchecked(item) });
    }

    /// Pops `M` items from the stack and returns them as an array (no dynamic
    /// allocation is involved). The order of the items is preserved: the stack
    /// is literally 'cut'.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns [`StackError`] if `M > stack.len`, i.e., the requested number of
    /// items exceeds the number of items available. No item is removed if the
    /// operation is invalid.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{stack, StackError};
    ///
    /// let mut greetings = stack! {
    ///     [&str; 5] = ["hello", "ciao", "hola", "salut"]
    /// };
    ///
    /// let arr = greetings.cut::<2>();
    ///
    /// // The order of the items is preserved.
    /// assert_eq!(arr, Ok(["hola", "salut"]));
    /// assert_eq!(greetings, ["hello", "ciao"]);
    /// assert_eq!(greetings.tos(), Some(&"ciao"));
    ///
    /// // Not enough items!
    /// let invalid = greetings.cut::<3>();
    /// assert_eq!(invalid, Err(StackError::Underflow));
    ///
    /// // No item is removed if the operation is invalid.
    /// assert_eq!(greetings, ["hello", "ciao"])
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    #[must_use = "If you want to discard the result, see `Stack::truncate`"]
    pub fn cut<const M: usize>(&mut self) -> Result<[T; M], StackError> {
        if M > self.len {
            Err(StackError::Underflow)
        } else {
            Ok(unsafe { self.cut_unchecked() })
        }
    }

    /// Pops `M` items from the stack and returns them as an array (no dynamic
    /// allocation is involved). The order of the items is preserved: the stack
    /// is literally 'cut'.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if `M > stack.len`, i.e., the requested number of
    /// items exceeds the number of items available.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```should_panic
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [String; 3] = ["data1".into(), "data2".into(), "data3".into()]
    /// };
    /// let data = stack.cut_panicking::<2>();
    /// assert_eq!(data, ["data2".to_string(), "data3".to_string()]);
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&String::from("data1")));
    ///
    /// // The following operation panics at runtime!
    /// let _ = stack.cut_panicking::<2>();
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    #[must_use = "If you want to discard the result, see `Stack::truncate_panicking`"]
    pub fn cut_panicking<const M: usize>(&mut self) -> [T; M] {
        assert!(
            M <= self.len,
            "Called Stack::cut_panicking but M > self.len"
        );
        unsafe { self.cut_unchecked() }
    }

    /// Pops `M` items from the stack and returns them as an array (no dynamic
    /// allocation is involved) without checking if there are enough items.
    /// The order of the items is preserved: the stack is literally 'cut'.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// If `M > stack.len`, i.e., the requested number of
    /// items exceeds the number of items available, *[undefined behavior]* occurs.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [i64; 8] = [89, 34, 56, 78, 12, 90, 78, 67]
    /// };
    ///
    /// let last_three_numbers = unsafe { stack.cut_unchecked::<3>() };
    /// assert_eq!(last_three_numbers, [90, 78, 67]);
    /// assert_eq!(stack, [89, 34, 56, 78, 12]);
    ///
    /// // The following operation would result in undefined behavior, as there are
    /// // only 5 items remaining in the stack.
    /// // let _ = unsafe { stack.cut_unchecked::<6>() };
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    #[must_use = "If you want to discard the result, see `Stack::truncate_unchecked`"]
    pub unsafe fn cut_unchecked<const M: usize>(&mut self) -> [T; M] {
        debug_assert!(M <= self.len);

        unsafe {
            // SAFETY: The `assume_init` is safe because the type we are claiming
            // to have initialized here is a bunch of `MaybeUninit`s, which do not
            // require initialization.
            // https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/mem/union.MaybeUninit.html#initializing-an-array-element-by-element
            let mut arr = mem::MaybeUninit::<[mem::MaybeUninit<T>; M]>::uninit().assume_init();

            // SAFETY: this is similar to slice::swap_with_slice. The slices cannot
            // overlap because mutable references are exclusive.
            ptr::swap_nonoverlapping(
                self.items[(self.len - M)..].as_mut_ptr(),
                arr[..].as_mut_ptr(),
                M,
            );
            self.len -= M;

            // SAFETY: At this point all the items inside arr have been swapped with
            // initialized data.
            arr.map(|item| item.assume_init())
        }
    }

    /// Swaps TOS with `item`, returning the previous TOS.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If the stack is empty, [`StackError`] is returned instead.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [&str; 10] = ["praise", "Lamborghini", "supercars!"]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // Replace "supercars" with "tractors".
    /// if let Ok(old_tos) = stack.swap_tos("tractors") {
    ///     println!("The old tos was: {}", old_tos);
    ///     assert_eq!(old_tos, "supercars!");
    /// } else {
    ///     println!("Could not swap tos: empty stack!");
    /// }
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn swap_tos(&mut self, item: T) -> Result<T, StackError> {
        if self.is_empty() {
            Err(StackError::Underflow)
        } else {
            Ok(unsafe { self.swap_tos_unchecked(item) })
        }
    }

    /// Swaps TOS with `item`, returning the previous TOS.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the stack is empty.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack![i64; 9];
    ///
    /// // SAFETY: We know there's enough space to do it.
    /// unsafe {
    ///     stack.push_unchecked(81);
    ///     stack.push_unchecked(3);
    /// }
    ///
    /// // This will panic if the stack is empty!
    /// assert_eq!(stack.swap_tos_panicking(16), 3);
    /// assert_eq!(stack.swap_tos_panicking(25), 16);
    /// assert_eq!(stack, stack! {
    ///     [i64; 9] = [81, 25]
    /// });
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn swap_tos_panicking(&mut self, item: T) -> T {
        assert!(
            !self.is_empty(),
            "Called Stack::swap_tos_panicking but the stack is empty"
        );
        unsafe { self.swap_tos_unchecked(item) }
    }

    /// Swaps TOS with `item`, returning the previous TOS without checking whether
    /// the stack is empty or not. For a safe alternative, see [`swap_tos`][Stack::swap_tos]
    /// or [`swap_tos_panicking`][Stack::swap_tos_panicking].
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Calling this method if the stack is empty is *[undefined behavior]*.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// // A stack full of &str.
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [&str; 2] = ["yeet", "lmao"]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // SAFETY: we know that the stack is not empty at this point.
    /// let old_tos = unsafe {
    ///     stack.swap_tos_unchecked("lolxd")
    /// };
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(old_tos, "lmao");
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&"lolxd"));
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn swap_tos_unchecked(&mut self, item: T) -> T {
        debug_assert!(!self.is_empty());

        unsafe {
            // SAFETY: the user has assured us that there is an item to be swapped,
            // and that `item` won't point to garbage.
            let item = ptr::replace(
                self.items.as_mut_ptr().add(self.len - 1),
                mem::MaybeUninit::new(item),
            );

            // SAFETY: the item has been correctly initialized at this point.
            item.assume_init()
        }
    }

    /// Swaps TOS with TOS - 1. In other terms, swaps the topmost item of the stack
    /// with the one immediately below it.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If the stack contains less than two items, [`StackError`] is
    /// returned.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{stack, StackError};
    ///
    /// let mut stack1 = stack! {
    ///     [char; 10] = ['a', 'b']
    /// };
    ///
    /// stack1.rotate_tos().unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(stack1.tos(), Some(&'a'));
    ///
    /// // Create a stack with no items.
    /// let mut stack2 = stack![i32; 5];
    /// assert_eq!(stack2.rotate_tos(), Err(StackError::Underflow));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn rotate_tos(&mut self) -> Result<(), StackError> {
        if self.len < 2 {
            Err(StackError::Underflow)
        } else {
            unsafe { self.rotate_tos_unchecked() };
            Ok(())
        }
    }

    /// Swaps TOS with TOS - 1. In other terms, swaps the topmost item of the stack
    /// with the one immediately below it.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the stack contains less than 2 items.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [isize; 5] = [90, 10, 30]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // This would panic if there were less than 2 items!
    /// stack.rotate_tos_panicking();
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&10));
    ///
    /// // Rotate again!
    /// stack.rotate_tos_panicking();
    ///
    /// // Now the tos has been swapped twice.
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&30));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn rotate_tos_panicking(&mut self) {
        assert!(
            self.len >= 2,
            "Called Stack::rotate_tos_panicking but the stack contains 1 or 0 items"
        );
        unsafe { self.rotate_tos_unchecked() };
    }

    /// Swaps TOS with TOS - 1. In other terms, swaps the topmost item of the stack
    /// with the one immediately below it, without checking if the stack contains
    /// at least 2 items.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Calling this method if the stack is contains less than 2 items
    /// is *[undefined behavior]*.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [char; 80] = ['7', '8', '9']
    /// };
    ///
    /// // SAFETY: we know there are at least 2 items at this point.
    /// unsafe {
    ///     stack.rotate_tos_unchecked();
    /// }
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&'8'));
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn rotate_tos_unchecked(&mut self) {
        debug_assert!(self.len >= 2);

        // SAFETY: this is similar to slice::swap_unchecked.
        // Create only 1 single ptr (this is important!)
        let ptr = self.items.as_mut_ptr();
        unsafe {
            ptr::swap(ptr.add(self.len - 1), ptr.add(self.len - 2));
        }
    }

    /// Shortens the stack, keeping the `len` elements and dropping
    /// the rest. If `len == stack.len`, nothing happens.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns a [`StackError`] if `len > stack.len`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{stack, StackError};
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [i8; 5] = [8, 3, 0]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // Remove 2 items, we don't need them!
    ///
    /// assert!(stack.truncate(2).is_ok());
    /// // There are not enough items to truncate!
    /// assert_eq!(stack.truncate(3), Err(StackError::Underflow));
    /// assert_eq!(stack.len(), 2);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn truncate(&mut self, new_len: usize) -> Result<(), StackError> {
        if new_len > self.len {
            Err(StackError::Underflow)
        } else {
            unsafe { self.truncate_unchecked(new_len) };
            Ok(())
        }
    }

    /// Shortens the stack, keeping the `len` elements and dropping
    /// the rest. If `len == stack.len`, nothing happens.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if `len > stack.len`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```should_panic
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [i8; 5] = [8, 3, 0]
    /// };
    ///
    /// // Keep 2 items, we don't need them!
    ///
    /// stack.truncate_panicking(2);
    /// // When the following line is executed, the program panics, as there are not
    /// // enough items to remove!
    /// stack.truncate_panicking(3);
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn truncate_panicking(&mut self, new_len: usize) {
        assert!(
            new_len <= self.len,
            "Called Stack::truncate_panicking but `len` ({}) is greater than stack's len ({})",
            new_len,
            self.len
        );
        unsafe { self.truncate_unchecked(new_len) };
    }

    /// Shortens the stack, keeping the `len` elements and dropping
    /// the rest. If `len == stack.len`, nothing happens. Does not check for the
    /// validity of `len`.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// If `len > stack.len`, *[undefined behavior]* occurs.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{stack, Stack};
    ///
    /// // Create a function which removes all items from the stack!
    /// // This uses unsafe code but it is safe.
    ///
    /// fn truncate_all_items<T, const N: usize>(stack: &mut Stack<T, N>) {
    ///     unsafe { stack.truncate_unchecked(0) };
    /// }
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [i32; 8] = [6, 7, 8, 9, 0]
    /// };
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.len(), 5);
    /// truncate_all_items(&mut stack);
    /// assert!(stack.is_empty());
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn truncate_unchecked(&mut self, new_len: usize) {
        debug_assert!(new_len <= self.len);

        // SAFETY: the user gave us a valid len.
        let remaining_len = self.len - new_len;
        unsafe {
            self.drop_items(remaining_len);
        }
        self.len = new_len;
    }

    /// Apply `f` to TOS, returning [`StackError`] if the stack is empty. `f` receives
    /// a mutable reference to TOS, which can be modified accordingly.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// The function returns a [`StackError`] if the stack is empty, because in that
    /// situation you could not apply `f` to TOS.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::{stack, StackError};
    ///
    /// fn double(x: &mut usize) {
    ///     *x = *x * 2;
    /// }
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [usize; 10] = [7, 8, 9]
    /// };
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stack.apply_tos(double), Ok(()));
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&18));
    ///
    /// // Let's try this on an empty stack...
    ///
    /// let mut empty_stack = stack![usize; 10];
    /// assert_eq!(empty_stack.apply_tos(double), Err(StackError::Underflow));
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn apply_tos<F>(&mut self, f: F) -> Result<(), StackError>
    where
        F: Fn(&mut T),
    {
        let Some(tos) = self.tos_mut() else {
            return Err(StackError::Underflow);
        };

        f(tos);
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Apply `f` to TOS, panicking if the stack is empty. `f` receives
    /// a mutable reference to TOS, which can be modified accordingly.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```should_panic
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut names = stack! {
    ///     [String; 4] = ["Frank".to_string(), "Joe".to_string()]
    /// };
    ///
    /// names.apply_tos_panicking(|name| {
    ///     name.push('!');
    /// });
    /// assert_eq!(names.tos(), Some(&String::from("Joe!")));
    ///
    /// names.clear();
    ///
    /// // The program panics because there is no TOS here!
    /// names.apply_tos_panicking(|name| { name.push('!'); });
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn apply_tos_panicking<F>(&mut self, f: F)
    where
        F: Fn(&mut T),
    {
        assert!(
            !self.is_empty(),
            "Called Stack::apply_tos_panicking on empty stack"
        );
        unsafe {
            self.apply_tos_unchecked(f);
        }
    }

    /// Apply `f` to TOS, without checking whether the stack is empty or not.
    /// `f` receives a mutable reference to TOS, which can be modified accordingly.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// Calling this method on an empty stack is *[undefined behaviour]*. Refer to
    /// [apply_tos][Stack::apply_tos] and [apply_tos_panicking][Stack::apply_tos_panicking]
    /// for a safe version of this function.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::Stack;
    ///
    /// fn create_a_non_empty_stack() -> Stack<i32, 16> {
    ///     Stack::fill_with_default()
    /// }
    ///
    /// let mut stack = create_a_non_empty_stack();
    ///
    /// // Safety: we know that the function never returns an empty stack.
    /// // It is therefore safe to call `apply_tos_unchecked` here.
    /// let set_to_max = |num: &mut i32| *num = i32::MAX;
    /// unsafe {
    ///     stack.apply_tos_unchecked(set_to_max);
    /// }
    /// assert_eq!(stack.tos(), Some(&i32::MAX));
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [undefined behavior]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn apply_tos_unchecked<F>(&mut self, f: F)
    where
        F: Fn(&mut T),
    {
        debug_assert!(!self.is_empty());

        // SAFETY: the user is upholding the safety contract here by promising
        // that the stack is not empty.
        f(unsafe { self.tos_mut_unchecked() });
    }

    /// Removes all the initialized items contained in the stack. The `len` becomes
    /// 0.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use astack::stack;
    ///
    /// let mut stack = stack! {
    ///     [u64; 128] = [7, 8, 9, 10]
    /// };
    /// assert!(!stack.is_empty());
    ///
    /// // Remove all the stack items.
    /// stack.clear();
    /// assert!(stack.is_empty());
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn clear(&mut self) {
        // SAFETY: the items have been correctly initialized, this SHOULD not
        // result in a double free (unless user-provied incorrect initialization).
        unsafe { self.drop_items(0) };
        self.len = 0;
    }

    /// The implementation of [`Drop::drop`] for [`Stack`].
    #[inline]
    unsafe fn drop_items(&mut self, start: usize) {
        // SAFETY: mem::MaybeUninit<T> has the same memory layout and align as T,
        // as it is #[repr(transparent)]. We assume that self.items[..self.len]
        // have been correctly initialized: if this is not the case, we drop
        // uninit memory, which is bad I suppose. But the user had been warned!
        //
        // We take inspiration from the Drop implementation of Vec<T> and from
        // the link below.
        //
        // https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/mem/union.MaybeUninit.html#method.slice_assume_init_mut
        unsafe {
            let items = self.init_items_as_mut_ptr(start);
            ptr::drop_in_place(items);
        }
    }

    /// Returns an immutable raw pointer to a slice of initialized items, beginning
    /// from `start`. If `start` is 0, this will return all the initialized items.
    #[inline]
    unsafe fn init_items_as_ptr(&self, start: usize) -> *const [T] {
        debug_assert!(start <= self.len);

        // SAFETY: this is only called internally and we know what we are doing.
        unsafe { self.items.get_unchecked(start..self.len) as *const [mem::MaybeUninit<T>] as _ }
    }

    /// Returns a mutable raw pointer to a slice of initialized items, beginning
    /// from `start`. If `start` is 0, this will return all the initialized items.
    #[inline]
    unsafe fn init_items_as_mut_ptr(&mut self, start: usize) -> *mut [T] {
        debug_assert!(start <= self.len);

        // SAFETY: this is only called internally and we know what we are doing.
        unsafe { self.items.get_unchecked_mut(start..self.len) as *mut [mem::MaybeUninit<T>] as _ }
    }
}

impl<T, const N: usize> Default for Stack<T, N> {
    /// `Stack::<T, N>::default()` is equivalent to `Stack::<T, N>::new()`.
    #[inline]
    fn default() -> Self {
        Self::new()
    }
}

impl<T, const N: usize> Clone for Stack<T, N>
where
    T: Clone,
{
    #[inline]
    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
        // Create an array of uninitialized memory and fill each uninitialized
        // cell with a copy of the corresponding initialized item.
        unsafe {
            let mut items = mem::MaybeUninit::<[mem::MaybeUninit<T>; N]>::uninit().assume_init();
            self.items
                .get_unchecked(..self.len)
                .iter()
                .zip(items.get_unchecked_mut(..self.len))
                .for_each(|(src, dst)| {
                    dst.write(src.assume_init_ref().clone());
                });
            Self {
                items,
                len: self.len,
            }
        }
    }
}

impl<T, U, const N: usize> PartialEq<Stack<U, N>> for Stack<T, N>
where
    T: PartialEq<U>,
{
    #[inline]
    fn eq(&self, other: &Stack<U, N>) -> bool {
        unsafe {
            let items1 = self.init_items_as_ptr(0);
            let items2 = other.init_items_as_ptr(0);

            // SAFETY: the following items should have been correctly initialized
            *items1 == *items2
        }
    }
}

impl<T, U, const N: usize> PartialEq<[U]> for Stack<T, N>
where
    T: PartialEq<U>,
{
    #[inline]
    fn eq(&self, other: &[U]) -> bool {
        unsafe {
            let items = self.init_items_as_ptr(0);
            *items == *other
        }
    }
}

impl<T, U, const N: usize, const M: usize> PartialEq<[U; M]> for Stack<T, N>
where
    T: PartialEq<U>,
{
    #[inline]
    fn eq(&self, other: &[U; M]) -> bool {
        unsafe {
            let items = self.init_items_as_ptr(0);
            *items == *other
        }
    }
}

impl<T, const N: usize> hash::Hash for Stack<T, N>
where
    T: hash::Hash,
{
    #[inline]
    fn hash<H>(&self, state: &mut H)
    where
        H: hash::Hasher,
    {
        ptr::hash(unsafe { self.init_items_as_ptr(0) }, state);
    }
}

impl<T, const N: usize> fmt::Debug for Stack<T, N>
where
    T: fmt::Debug,
{
    #[inline]
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        // Better print output
        struct DebugUninit;
        impl fmt::Debug for DebugUninit {
            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
                write!(f, "(uninit)")
            }
        }

        let mut list = f.debug_list();

        unsafe {
            list.entries(
                self.items
                    .get_unchecked(..self.len)
                    .iter()
                    .map(|item| item.assume_init_ref()),
            );
        }

        list.entries((self.len..N).map(|_| &DebugUninit));

        list.finish()
    }
}

impl<T, const N: usize> Drop for Stack<T, N> {
    #[inline]
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        unsafe { self.drop_items(0) };
    }
}

#[cfg(feature = "std")]
impl<T, const N: usize> From<Stack<T, N>> for std::vec::Vec<T> {
    #[inline]
    fn from(stack: Stack<T, N>) -> Self {
        let mut v = std::vec::Vec::with_capacity(stack.len());
        // We rev because we want the end of the vec to be the top
        // of the stack
        v.extend(stack.into_iter().rev());
        v
    }
}

#[cfg(feature = "std")]
impl<T, const N: usize> TryFrom<std::vec::Vec<T>> for Stack<T, N> {
    type Error = StackError;

    #[inline]
    fn try_from(v: std::vec::Vec<T>) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
        try_extend_into_iter(v.len(), v)
    }
}

#[cfg(feature = "std")]
impl<T, const N: usize> TryFrom<std::collections::LinkedList<T>> for Stack<T, N> {
    type Error = StackError;

    #[inline]
    fn try_from(list: std::collections::LinkedList<T>) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
        try_extend_into_iter(list.len(), list)
    }
}

#[cfg(feature = "std")]
#[inline]
fn try_extend_into_iter<T, const N: usize>(
    len: usize,
    it: impl IntoIterator<Item = T>,
) -> Result<Stack<T, N>, StackError> {
    if len > N {
        return Err(StackError::Overflow);
    }

    let mut stack = Stack::new();

    // SAFETY: we know that the iterator does not have more items
    // than the stack's remaining capacity
    unsafe {
        stack.extend_unchecked(it);
    }
    Ok(stack)
}

impl<T, const N: usize> IntoIterator for Stack<T, N> {
    type IntoIter = StackIntoIter<T, N>;
    type Item = T;

    #[inline]
    fn into_iter(mut self) -> Self::IntoIter {
        // Replace the items with the default array
        //
        // SAFETY: same as `Stack::new()`
        let items = mem::replace(&mut self.items, unsafe {
            mem::MaybeUninit::uninit().assume_init()
        });

        // Do not forget to reset the length as well otherwise we drop more than we have!
        let top_len = mem::replace(&mut self.len, 0);

        // Safety: `items` and `top_len` are valid as they come from us
        unsafe { StackIntoIter::new(items, top_len) }
    }
}