apex_camera_models/

kannala_brandt.rs

//! Kannala-Brandt fisheye camera model.
//!
//! Polynomial radial distortion parameterized in the incidence angle θ, suitable for fisheye
//! lenses up to ~180° FOV. Has 8 intrinsic parameters. See the
//! [kannala-brandt cookbook chapter](../doc/cookbook/src/kannala-brandt.html) for the full
//! projection, unprojection, and Jacobian derivations.

use crate::{CameraModel, CameraModelError, DistortionModel, PinholeParams};
use nalgebra::{DVector, SMatrix, Vector2, Vector3};

/// Kannala-Brandt fisheye camera model with 8 parameters.
#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq)]
pub struct KannalaBrandtCamera {
    pub pinhole: PinholeParams,
    pub distortion: DistortionModel,
}

impl KannalaBrandtCamera {
    /// Creates a new Kannala-Brandt fisheye camera.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns [`CameraModelError::InvalidParams`] if `distortion` is not
    /// [`DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt`].
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use apex_camera_models::{CameraModel, DistortionModel, KannalaBrandtCamera, PinholeParams};
    ///
    /// let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
    /// let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt { k1: 0.1, k2: 0.01, k3: 0.001, k4: 0.0001 };
    /// let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
    /// assert_eq!(camera.get_model_name(), "kannala_brandt");
    /// # Ok::<(), apex_camera_models::CameraModelError>(())
    /// ```
    pub fn new(
        pinhole: PinholeParams,
        distortion: DistortionModel,
    ) -> Result<Self, CameraModelError> {
        let model = Self {
            pinhole,
            distortion,
        };
        model.validate_params()?;
        Ok(model)
    }

    /// Returns the Kannala-Brandt distortion parameters as `(k1, k2, k3, k4)`.
    /// Returns zeros if the model is not Kannala-Brandt.
    fn distortion_params(&self) -> (f64, f64, f64, f64) {
        match self.distortion {
            DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt { k1, k2, k3, k4 } => (k1, k2, k3, k4),
            _ => (0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0),
        }
    }

    /// Returns `true` if the point's z-coordinate is at or above [`crate::GEOMETRIC_PRECISION`].
    fn check_projection_condition(&self, z: f64) -> bool {
        z >= crate::GEOMETRIC_PRECISION
    }

    /// Initializes `[k1, k2, k3, k4]` via linear least-squares given 3D–2D correspondences.
    /// Requires the intrinsics `[fx, fy, cx, cy]` to already be set; needs at least 4 correspondences.
    pub fn linear_estimation(
        &mut self,
        points_3d: &nalgebra::Matrix3xX<f64>,
        points_2d: &nalgebra::Matrix2xX<f64>,
    ) -> Result<(), CameraModelError> {
        if points_3d.ncols() != points_2d.ncols() {
            return Err(CameraModelError::InvalidParams(
                "Number of 2D and 3D points must match".to_string(),
            ));
        }
        if points_3d.ncols() < 4 {
            return Err(CameraModelError::InvalidParams(
                "Not enough points for linear estimation (need at least 4)".to_string(),
            ));
        }

        let num_points = points_3d.ncols();
        let mut a_mat = nalgebra::DMatrix::zeros(num_points * 2, 4);
        let mut b_vec = nalgebra::DVector::zeros(num_points * 2);

        for i in 0..num_points {
            let p3d = points_3d.column(i);
            let p2d = points_2d.column(i);

            let x_world = p3d.x;
            let y_world = p3d.y;
            let z_world = p3d.z;

            let u_img = p2d.x;
            let v_img = p2d.y;

            if z_world <= f64::EPSILON {
                continue;
            }

            let r_world = (x_world * x_world + y_world * y_world).sqrt();
            let theta = r_world.atan2(z_world);

            let theta2 = theta * theta;
            let theta3 = theta2 * theta;
            let theta5 = theta3 * theta2;
            let theta7 = theta5 * theta2;
            let theta9 = theta7 * theta2;

            a_mat[(i * 2, 0)] = theta3;
            a_mat[(i * 2, 1)] = theta5;
            a_mat[(i * 2, 2)] = theta7;
            a_mat[(i * 2, 3)] = theta9;

            a_mat[(i * 2 + 1, 0)] = theta3;
            a_mat[(i * 2 + 1, 1)] = theta5;
            a_mat[(i * 2 + 1, 2)] = theta7;
            a_mat[(i * 2 + 1, 3)] = theta9;

            let x_r = if r_world < f64::EPSILON {
                0.0
            } else {
                x_world / r_world
            };
            let y_r = if r_world < f64::EPSILON {
                0.0
            } else {
                y_world / r_world
            };

            if (self.pinhole.fx * x_r).abs() < f64::EPSILON && x_r.abs() > f64::EPSILON {
                return Err(CameraModelError::NumericalError {
                    operation: "linear_estimation".to_string(),
                    details: "fx * x_r is zero in linear estimation".to_string(),
                });
            }
            if (self.pinhole.fy * y_r).abs() < f64::EPSILON && y_r.abs() > f64::EPSILON {
                return Err(CameraModelError::NumericalError {
                    operation: "linear_estimation".to_string(),
                    details: "fy * y_r is zero in linear estimation".to_string(),
                });
            }

            if x_r.abs() > f64::EPSILON {
                b_vec[i * 2] = (u_img - self.pinhole.cx) / (self.pinhole.fx * x_r) - theta;
            } else {
                b_vec[i * 2] = if (u_img - self.pinhole.cx).abs() < f64::EPSILON {
                    -theta
                } else {
                    0.0
                };
            }

            if y_r.abs() > f64::EPSILON {
                b_vec[i * 2 + 1] = (v_img - self.pinhole.cy) / (self.pinhole.fy * y_r) - theta;
            } else {
                b_vec[i * 2 + 1] = if (v_img - self.pinhole.cy).abs() < f64::EPSILON {
                    -theta
                } else {
                    0.0
                };
            }
        }

        let svd = a_mat.svd(true, true);
        let x_coeffs =
            svd.solve(&b_vec, f64::EPSILON)
                .map_err(|e_str| CameraModelError::NumericalError {
                    operation: "svd_solve".to_string(),
                    details: format!("SVD solve failed in linear estimation: {e_str}"),
                })?;

        self.distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: x_coeffs[0],
            k2: x_coeffs[1],
            k3: x_coeffs[2],
            k4: x_coeffs[3],
        };

        self.validate_params()?;
        Ok(())
    }
}

/// Converts the camera to a dynamic vector with layout `[fx, fy, cx, cy, k1, k2, k3, k4]`.
impl From<&KannalaBrandtCamera> for DVector<f64> {
    fn from(camera: &KannalaBrandtCamera) -> Self {
        let (k1, k2, k3, k4) = camera.distortion_params();
        DVector::from_vec(vec![
            camera.pinhole.fx,
            camera.pinhole.fy,
            camera.pinhole.cx,
            camera.pinhole.cy,
            k1,
            k2,
            k3,
            k4,
        ])
    }
}

/// Converts the camera to a fixed-size array with layout `[fx, fy, cx, cy, k1, k2, k3, k4]`.
impl From<&KannalaBrandtCamera> for [f64; 8] {
    fn from(camera: &KannalaBrandtCamera) -> Self {
        let (k1, k2, k3, k4) = camera.distortion_params();
        [
            camera.pinhole.fx,
            camera.pinhole.fy,
            camera.pinhole.cx,
            camera.pinhole.cy,
            k1,
            k2,
            k3,
            k4,
        ]
    }
}

/// Creates a camera from a slice with layout `[fx, fy, cx, cy, k1, k2, k3, k4]`.
/// Returns an error if the slice has fewer than 8 elements.
impl TryFrom<&[f64]> for KannalaBrandtCamera {
    type Error = CameraModelError;

    fn try_from(params: &[f64]) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
        if params.len() < 8 {
            return Err(CameraModelError::InvalidParams(format!(
                "KannalaBrandtCamera requires at least 8 parameters, got {}",
                params.len()
            )));
        }
        Ok(Self {
            pinhole: PinholeParams {
                fx: params[0],
                fy: params[1],
                cx: params[2],
                cy: params[3],
            },
            distortion: DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
                k1: params[4],
                k2: params[5],
                k3: params[6],
                k4: params[7],
            },
        })
    }
}

/// Creates a camera from a fixed-size array with layout `[fx, fy, cx, cy, k1, k2, k3, k4]`.
impl From<[f64; 8]> for KannalaBrandtCamera {
    fn from(params: [f64; 8]) -> Self {
        Self {
            pinhole: PinholeParams {
                fx: params[0],
                fy: params[1],
                cx: params[2],
                cy: params[3],
            },
            distortion: DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
                k1: params[4],
                k2: params[5],
                k3: params[6],
                k4: params[7],
            },
        }
    }
}

/// Creates a `KannalaBrandtCamera` from a parameter slice with validation.
///
/// Unlike `From<&[f64]>`, this constructor validates all parameters
/// Creates a `KannalaBrandtCamera` from a parameter slice with full validation.
/// Unlike [`<KannalaBrandtCamera as TryFrom<&[f64]>>::try_from`], this also calls
/// [`CameraModel::validate_params`] and returns any validation errors.
pub fn try_from_params(params: &[f64]) -> Result<KannalaBrandtCamera, CameraModelError> {
    let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::try_from(params)?;
    camera.validate_params()?;
    Ok(camera)
}

impl CameraModel for KannalaBrandtCamera {
    const INTRINSIC_DIM: usize = 8;
    type IntrinsicJacobian = SMatrix<f64, 2, 8>;
    type PointJacobian = SMatrix<f64, 2, 3>;

    /// Projects a 3D point in the camera frame to 2D image coordinates.
    /// Returns [`CameraModelError::PointBehindCamera`] if the point lies at or behind
    /// the camera.
    fn project(&self, p_cam: &Vector3<f64>) -> Result<Vector2<f64>, CameraModelError> {
        let x = p_cam[0];
        let y = p_cam[1];
        let z = p_cam[2];

        if !self.check_projection_condition(z) {
            return Err(CameraModelError::PointBehindCamera {
                z,
                min_z: crate::GEOMETRIC_PRECISION,
            });
        }

        let (k1, k2, k3, k4) = self.distortion_params();
        let r2 = x * x + y * y;
        let r = r2.sqrt();
        let theta = r.atan2(z);

        // Polynomial distortion: d(θ) = θ + k₁·θ³ + k₂·θ⁵ + k₃·θ⁷ + k₄·θ⁹
        let theta2 = theta * theta;
        let theta3 = theta2 * theta;
        let theta5 = theta3 * theta2;
        let theta7 = theta5 * theta2;
        let theta9 = theta7 * theta2;

        let theta_d = theta + k1 * theta3 + k2 * theta5 + k3 * theta7 + k4 * theta9;

        if r < crate::GEOMETRIC_PRECISION {
            let inv_z = 1.0 / z;
            return Ok(Vector2::new(
                self.pinhole.fx * x * inv_z + self.pinhole.cx,
                self.pinhole.fy * y * inv_z + self.pinhole.cy,
            ));
        }

        let inv_r = 1.0 / r;
        Ok(Vector2::new(
            self.pinhole.fx * theta_d * x * inv_r + self.pinhole.cx,
            self.pinhole.fy * theta_d * y * inv_r + self.pinhole.cy,
        ))
    }

    /// Unprojects a 2D image point to a unit 3D ray. Solves for the incidence angle
    /// θ with Newton-Raphson, then converts to a 3D direction. Returns
    /// [`CameraModelError::NumericalError`] if the derivative becomes too small.
    fn unproject(&self, point_2d: &Vector2<f64>) -> Result<Vector3<f64>, CameraModelError> {
        let u = point_2d.x;
        let v = point_2d.y;

        let (k1, k2, k3, k4) = self.distortion_params();
        let mx = (u - self.pinhole.cx) / self.pinhole.fx;
        let my = (v - self.pinhole.cy) / self.pinhole.fy;

        let mut ru = (mx * mx + my * my).sqrt();

        ru = ru.min(std::f64::consts::PI / 2.0);

        if ru < crate::GEOMETRIC_PRECISION {
            return Ok(Vector3::new(0.0, 0.0, 1.0));
        }

        let mut theta = ru;
        const MAX_ITER: usize = 10;
        const CONVERGENCE_THRESHOLD: f64 = crate::CONVERGENCE_THRESHOLD;

        for _ in 0..MAX_ITER {
            let theta2 = theta * theta;
            let theta4 = theta2 * theta2;
            let theta6 = theta4 * theta2;
            let theta8 = theta4 * theta4;

            let k1_theta2 = k1 * theta2;
            let k2_theta4 = k2 * theta4;
            let k3_theta6 = k3 * theta6;
            let k4_theta8 = k4 * theta8;

            let f = theta * (1.0 + k1_theta2 + k2_theta4 + k3_theta6 + k4_theta8) - ru;
            let f_prime =
                1.0 + 3.0 * k1_theta2 + 5.0 * k2_theta4 + 7.0 * k3_theta6 + 9.0 * k4_theta8;

            if f_prime.abs() < f64::EPSILON {
                return Err(CameraModelError::NumericalError {
                    operation: "unprojection".to_string(),
                    details: "Derivative too small in KB unprojection".to_string(),
                });
            }

            let delta = f / f_prime;
            theta -= delta;

            if delta.abs() < CONVERGENCE_THRESHOLD {
                break;
            }
        }

        let sin_theta = theta.sin();
        let cos_theta = theta.cos();

        let scale = sin_theta / ru;
        let x = mx * scale;
        let y = my * scale;
        let z = cos_theta;

        Ok(Vector3::new(x, y, z).normalize())
    }

    /// 2×3 Jacobian ∂(u,v)/∂(x,y,z). See the
    /// [cookbook](../doc/cookbook/src/kannala-brandt.html#jacobians) for the full derivation.
    ///
    /// # Implementation Note
    ///
    /// The implementation handles the optical axis singularity (r → 0) using a threshold check
    /// and falls back to a simplified Jacobian for numerical stability.
    fn jacobian_point(&self, p_cam: &Vector3<f64>) -> Self::PointJacobian {
        let x = p_cam[0];
        let y = p_cam[1];
        let z = p_cam[2];

        let (k1, k2, k3, k4) = self.distortion_params();
        let r = (x * x + y * y).sqrt();
        let theta = r.atan2(z);

        let theta2 = theta * theta;
        let theta3 = theta2 * theta;
        let theta5 = theta3 * theta2;
        let theta7 = theta5 * theta2;
        let theta9 = theta7 * theta2;

        let theta_d = theta + k1 * theta3 + k2 * theta5 + k3 * theta7 + k4 * theta9;

        // ∂θ_d/∂θ = 1 + 3k₁·θ² + 5k₂·θ⁴ + 7k₃·θ⁶ + 9k₄·θ⁸
        let dtheta_d_dtheta = 1.0
            + 3.0 * k1 * theta2
            + 5.0 * k2 * theta2 * theta2
            + 7.0 * k3 * theta2 * theta2 * theta2
            + 9.0 * k4 * theta2 * theta2 * theta2 * theta2;

        if r < crate::GEOMETRIC_PRECISION {
            // Near optical axis, use simplified Jacobian
            return SMatrix::<f64, 2, 3>::new(
                self.pinhole.fx * dtheta_d_dtheta / z,
                0.0,
                0.0,
                0.0,
                self.pinhole.fy * dtheta_d_dtheta / z,
                0.0,
            );
        }

        let inv_r = 1.0 / r;
        let r2 = r * r;
        let r_z2 = r2 + z * z;

        // ∂θ/∂x = z·x / (r·(r² + z²))
        // ∂θ/∂y = z·y / (r·(r² + z²))
        // ∂θ/∂z = -r / (r² + z²)
        let dtheta_dx = z * x / (r * r_z2);
        let dtheta_dy = z * y / (r * r_z2);
        let dtheta_dz = -r / r_z2;

        // ∂r/∂x = x/r, ∂r/∂y = y/r, ∂r/∂z = 0

        // Chain rule for u = fx · θ_d · (x/r) + cx
        let inv_r2 = inv_r * inv_r;

        let du_dx = self.pinhole.fx
            * (dtheta_d_dtheta * dtheta_dx * x * inv_r
                + theta_d * (inv_r - x * x * inv_r2 * inv_r));
        let du_dy = self.pinhole.fx
            * (dtheta_d_dtheta * dtheta_dy * x * inv_r - theta_d * x * y * inv_r2 * inv_r);
        let du_dz = self.pinhole.fx * dtheta_d_dtheta * dtheta_dz * x * inv_r;

        let dv_dx = self.pinhole.fy
            * (dtheta_d_dtheta * dtheta_dx * y * inv_r - theta_d * x * y * inv_r2 * inv_r);
        let dv_dy = self.pinhole.fy
            * (dtheta_d_dtheta * dtheta_dy * y * inv_r
                + theta_d * (inv_r - y * y * inv_r2 * inv_r));
        let dv_dz = self.pinhole.fy * dtheta_d_dtheta * dtheta_dz * y * inv_r;

        SMatrix::<f64, 2, 3>::new(du_dx, du_dy, du_dz, dv_dx, dv_dy, dv_dz)
    }

    /// 2×8 Jacobian ∂(u,v)/∂[fx, fy, cx, cy, k1, k2, k3, k4]. See the
    /// [cookbook](../doc/cookbook/src/kannala-brandt.html#jacobians) for the full derivation.
    fn jacobian_intrinsics(&self, p_cam: &Vector3<f64>) -> Self::IntrinsicJacobian {
        let x = p_cam[0];
        let y = p_cam[1];
        let z = p_cam[2];

        let (k1, k2, k3, k4) = self.distortion_params();
        let r = (x * x + y * y).sqrt();
        let theta = r.atan2(z);

        let theta2 = theta * theta;
        let theta3 = theta2 * theta;
        let theta5 = theta3 * theta2;
        let theta7 = theta5 * theta2;
        let theta9 = theta7 * theta2;

        let theta_d = theta + k1 * theta3 + k2 * theta5 + k3 * theta7 + k4 * theta9;

        if r < crate::GEOMETRIC_PRECISION {
            return SMatrix::<f64, 2, 8>::zeros();
        }

        let inv_r = 1.0 / r;
        let x_theta_d_r = x * theta_d * inv_r;
        let y_theta_d_r = y * theta_d * inv_r;

        // ∂u/∂fx = θ_d·x/r, ∂u/∂fy = 0, ∂u/∂cx = 1, ∂u/∂cy = 0
        // ∂v/∂fx = 0, ∂v/∂fy = θ_d·y/r, ∂v/∂cx = 0, ∂v/∂cy = 1

        // ∂u/∂k₁ = fx·θ³·x/r, ∂u/∂k₂ = fx·θ⁵·x/r, etc.
        let du_dk1 = self.pinhole.fx * theta3 * x * inv_r;
        let du_dk2 = self.pinhole.fx * theta5 * x * inv_r;
        let du_dk3 = self.pinhole.fx * theta7 * x * inv_r;
        let du_dk4 = self.pinhole.fx * theta9 * x * inv_r;

        let dv_dk1 = self.pinhole.fy * theta3 * y * inv_r;
        let dv_dk2 = self.pinhole.fy * theta5 * y * inv_r;
        let dv_dk3 = self.pinhole.fy * theta7 * y * inv_r;
        let dv_dk4 = self.pinhole.fy * theta9 * y * inv_r;

        SMatrix::<f64, 2, 8>::from_row_slice(&[
            x_theta_d_r,
            0.0,
            1.0,
            0.0,
            du_dk1,
            du_dk2,
            du_dk3,
            du_dk4,
            0.0,
            y_theta_d_r,
            0.0,
            1.0,
            dv_dk1,
            dv_dk2,
            dv_dk3,
            dv_dk4,
        ])
    }

    /// Validates the camera parameters.
    ///
    /// # Validation Rules
    ///
    /// - `fx`, `fy` must be positive (> 0) and finite
    /// - `cx`, `cy` must be finite
    /// - `k1`..`k4` must be finite
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns [`CameraModelError`] if any rule is violated.
    fn validate_params(&self) -> Result<(), CameraModelError> {
        self.pinhole.validate()?;
        self.get_distortion().validate()
    }

    /// Returns the pinhole parameters.
    fn get_pinhole_params(&self) -> PinholeParams {
        PinholeParams {
            fx: self.pinhole.fx,
            fy: self.pinhole.fy,
            cx: self.pinhole.cx,
            cy: self.pinhole.cy,
        }
    }

    /// Returns the distortion model (must be [`DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt`]).
    fn get_distortion(&self) -> DistortionModel {
        self.distortion
    }

    /// Returns the model name: `"kannala_brandt"`.
    fn get_model_name(&self) -> &'static str {
        "kannala_brandt"
    }
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;
    use nalgebra::{Matrix2xX, Matrix3xX};

    type TestResult = Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>>;

    #[test]
    fn test_kb_camera_creation() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        assert_eq!(camera.pinhole.fx, 300.0);
        let (k1, _, _, _) = camera.distortion_params();
        assert_eq!(k1, 0.1);
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_projection_at_optical_axis() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        let p_cam = Vector3::new(0.0, 0.0, 1.0);
        let uv = camera.project(&p_cam)?;

        assert!((uv.x - 320.0).abs() < 1e-6);
        assert!((uv.y - 240.0).abs() < 1e-6);

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_jacobian_point_numerical() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        let p_cam = Vector3::new(0.1, 0.2, 1.0);

        let jac_analytical = camera.jacobian_point(&p_cam);
        let eps = crate::NUMERICAL_DERIVATIVE_EPS;

        for i in 0..3 {
            let mut p_plus = p_cam;
            let mut p_minus = p_cam;
            p_plus[i] += eps;
            p_minus[i] -= eps;

            let uv_plus = camera.project(&p_plus)?;
            let uv_minus = camera.project(&p_minus)?;
            let num_jac = (uv_plus - uv_minus) / (2.0 * eps);

            for r in 0..2 {
                assert!(
                    jac_analytical[(r, i)].is_finite(),
                    "Jacobian [{r},{i}] is not finite"
                );
                let diff = (jac_analytical[(r, i)] - num_jac[r]).abs();
                assert!(
                    diff < crate::JACOBIAN_TEST_TOLERANCE,
                    "Mismatch at ({}, {})",
                    r,
                    i
                );
            }
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_jacobian_intrinsics_numerical() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        let p_cam = Vector3::new(0.1, 0.2, 1.0);

        let jac_analytical = camera.jacobian_intrinsics(&p_cam);
        let params: DVector<f64> = (&camera).into();
        let eps = crate::NUMERICAL_DERIVATIVE_EPS;

        for i in 0..8 {
            let mut params_plus = params.clone();
            let mut params_minus = params.clone();
            params_plus[i] += eps;
            params_minus[i] -= eps;

            let cam_plus = KannalaBrandtCamera::try_from(params_plus.as_slice())?;
            let cam_minus = KannalaBrandtCamera::try_from(params_minus.as_slice())?;

            let uv_plus = cam_plus.project(&p_cam)?;
            let uv_minus = cam_minus.project(&p_cam)?;
            let num_jac = (uv_plus - uv_minus) / (2.0 * eps);

            for r in 0..2 {
                assert!(
                    jac_analytical[(r, i)].is_finite(),
                    "Jacobian [{r},{i}] is not finite"
                );
                let diff = (jac_analytical[(r, i)] - num_jac[r]).abs();
                assert!(
                    diff < crate::JACOBIAN_TEST_TOLERANCE,
                    "Mismatch at ({}, {})",
                    r,
                    i
                );
            }
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_kb_from_into_traits() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;

        // Test conversion to DVector
        let params: DVector<f64> = (&camera).into();
        assert_eq!(params.len(), 8);
        assert_eq!(params[0], 300.0);
        assert_eq!(params[1], 300.0);
        assert_eq!(params[2], 320.0);
        assert_eq!(params[3], 240.0);
        assert_eq!(params[4], 0.1);
        assert_eq!(params[5], 0.01);
        assert_eq!(params[6], 0.001);
        assert_eq!(params[7], 0.0001);

        // Test conversion to array
        let arr: [f64; 8] = (&camera).into();
        assert_eq!(arr, [300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001]);

        // Test conversion from slice
        let params_slice = [350.0, 350.0, 330.0, 250.0, 0.2, 0.02, 0.002, 0.0002];
        let camera2 = KannalaBrandtCamera::try_from(&params_slice[..])?;
        assert_eq!(camera2.pinhole.fx, 350.0);
        assert_eq!(camera2.pinhole.fy, 350.0);
        assert_eq!(camera2.pinhole.cx, 330.0);
        assert_eq!(camera2.pinhole.cy, 250.0);
        let (k1, k2, k3, k4) = camera2.distortion_params();
        assert_eq!(k1, 0.2);
        assert_eq!(k2, 0.02);
        assert_eq!(k3, 0.002);
        assert_eq!(k4, 0.0002);

        // Test conversion from array
        let camera3 =
            KannalaBrandtCamera::from([400.0, 400.0, 340.0, 260.0, 0.3, 0.03, 0.003, 0.0003]);
        assert_eq!(camera3.pinhole.fx, 400.0);
        assert_eq!(camera3.pinhole.fy, 400.0);
        let (k1, k2, k3, k4) = camera3.distortion_params();
        assert_eq!(k1, 0.3);
        assert_eq!(k2, 0.03);
        assert_eq!(k3, 0.003);
        assert_eq!(k4, 0.0003);

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_linear_estimation() -> TestResult {
        // Ground truth fisheye camera
        let gt_pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let gt_distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let gt_camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(gt_pinhole, gt_distortion)?;

        // Generate synthetic 3D points in camera frame
        let n_points = 50;
        let mut pts_3d = Matrix3xX::zeros(n_points);
        let mut pts_2d = Matrix2xX::zeros(n_points);
        let mut valid = 0;

        for i in 0..n_points {
            let angle = i as f64 * 2.0 * std::f64::consts::PI / n_points as f64;
            let r = 0.1 + 0.4 * (i as f64 / n_points as f64);
            let p3d = Vector3::new(r * angle.cos(), r * angle.sin(), 1.0);

            if let Ok(p2d) = gt_camera.project(&p3d) {
                pts_3d.set_column(valid, &p3d);
                pts_2d.set_column(valid, &p2d);
                valid += 1;
            }
        }
        let pts_3d = pts_3d.columns(0, valid).into_owned();
        let pts_2d = pts_2d.columns(0, valid).into_owned();

        // Initial camera with zero distortion
        let init_pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let init_distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.0,
            k2: 0.0,
            k3: 0.0,
            k4: 0.0,
        };
        let mut camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(init_pinhole, init_distortion)?;

        camera.linear_estimation(&pts_3d, &pts_2d)?;

        // Verify reprojection error
        for i in 0..valid {
            let col = pts_3d.column(i);
            let projected = camera.project(&Vector3::new(col[0], col[1], col[2]))?;
            let err = ((projected.x - pts_2d[(0, i)]).powi(2)
                + (projected.y - pts_2d[(1, i)]).powi(2))
            .sqrt();
            assert!(err < 3.0, "Reprojection error too large: {err}");
        }

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_project_unproject_round_trip() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;

        let test_points = [
            Vector3::new(0.1, 0.2, 1.0),
            Vector3::new(-0.3, 0.1, 2.0),
            Vector3::new(0.05, -0.1, 0.5),
        ];

        for p_cam in &test_points {
            let uv = camera.project(p_cam)?;
            let ray = camera.unproject(&uv)?;
            let dot = ray.dot(&p_cam.normalize());
            assert!(
                (dot - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6,
                "Round-trip failed: dot={dot}, expected ~1.0"
            );
        }

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_project_returns_error_behind_camera() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.0,
            k2: 0.0,
            k3: 0.0,
            k4: 0.0,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        assert!(camera.project(&Vector3::new(0.0, 0.0, -1.0)).is_err());
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_project_at_min_depth_boundary() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.0,
            k2: 0.0,
            k3: 0.0,
            k4: 0.0,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        let p_min = Vector3::new(0.0, 0.0, crate::MIN_DEPTH);
        if let Ok(uv) = camera.project(&p_min) {
            assert!(uv.x.is_finite() && uv.y.is_finite());
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_projection_off_axis() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        let p_cam = Vector3::new(0.3, 0.0, 1.0);
        let uv = camera.project(&p_cam)?;
        assert!(
            uv.x > 320.0,
            "off-axis point should project right of principal point"
        );
        assert!(
            (uv.y - 240.0).abs() < 1.0,
            "y should be close to cy for horizontal offset"
        );
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_unproject_center_pixel() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        let uv = Vector2::new(320.0, 240.0);
        let ray = camera.unproject(&uv)?;
        assert!(ray.x.abs() < 1e-6, "x should be ~0, got {}", ray.x);
        assert!(ray.y.abs() < 1e-6, "y should be ~0, got {}", ray.y);
        assert!((ray.z - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6, "z should be ~1, got {}", ray.z);
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_batch_projection_matches_individual() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        let pts = Matrix3xX::from_columns(&[
            Vector3::new(0.0, 0.0, 1.0),
            Vector3::new(0.3, 0.2, 1.5),
            Vector3::new(-0.4, 0.1, 2.0),
        ]);
        let batch = camera.project_batch(&pts);
        for i in 0..3 {
            let col = pts.column(i);
            let p = camera.project(&Vector3::new(col[0], col[1], col[2]))?;
            assert!(
                (batch[(0, i)] - p.x).abs() < 1e-10,
                "batch u mismatch at col {i}"
            );
            assert!(
                (batch[(1, i)] - p.y).abs() < 1e-10,
                "batch v mismatch at col {i}"
            );
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_jacobian_dimensions() -> TestResult {
        let pinhole = PinholeParams::new(300.0, 300.0, 320.0, 240.0)?;
        let distortion = DistortionModel::KannalaBrandt {
            k1: 0.1,
            k2: 0.01,
            k3: 0.001,
            k4: 0.0001,
        };
        let camera = KannalaBrandtCamera::new(pinhole, distortion)?;
        let p_cam = Vector3::new(0.1, 0.2, 1.0);
        let jac_point = camera.jacobian_point(&p_cam);
        assert_eq!(jac_point.nrows(), 2);
        assert_eq!(jac_point.ncols(), 3);
        let jac_intr = camera.jacobian_intrinsics(&p_cam);
        assert_eq!(jac_intr.nrows(), 2);
        assert_eq!(jac_intr.ncols(), 8); // KannalaBrandtCamera::INTRINSIC_DIM = 8
        Ok(())
    }
}