portable_io/

lib.rs

//! Traits, helpers, and type definitions for core I/O functionality.
//! A subset from Rust `std::io` functionality supported for `no-std`.
//!
//! **MSRV:**
//! - stable: `1.81.0`
//! - nightly: `nightly-2022-08-24`
//!
//! NOTE: unstable configuration `--cfg portable_io_unstable_all` in Rust flags is required for Rust nightly
//! pre-`2024-06-09` to enable `error_in_core` feature directive (stabilized in June 2024).
//!
//! ## Features
//!
//! - `alloc` (enabled by default) - mandatory feature - for alloc-related functionality
//! - `os-error` (unstable feature) - support raw OS errors - with some KNOWN PANICS due to MISSING FUNCTIONALITY
//! - `unix-iovec` (unstable feature) - use `iovec` from `libc` for data stored in IoSlice & IoSliceMut
//!
//! ## CFG options
//!
//! - `portable_io_unstable_all` - enable all unstable option(s):
//!   - size hint optimization for Read iterator - uses Rust unstable `min_specialization` feature
//!
//! To enable: use `--cfg portable_io_unstable_all` in Rust flags, set `RUSTFLAGS` env variable
//! when running `cargo build` or `cargo test` for example.
//!
//! <!-- DOC TODO: INCLUDE & ADAPT MORE DOC COMMENTS FROM RUST STD IO LIBRARY CODE -->
//! <!-- DOC TODO: CLEANUP AS MANY CARGO DOC WARNINGS AS POSSIBLE & CHECK THIS IN CI -->

#![no_std]
// ---
// NEEDED to allow `error_in_core` & `mixed_integer_ops` feature directives, which were stabilized in June & September 2024
#![allow(stable_features)]
// ---
// TODO: FIX documentation of notable traits as noted by TODO comments below - requires Rust unstable doc_notable_trait feature
// ---
#![cfg_attr(
    portable_io_unstable_all,
    feature(allocator_api, min_specialization, error_in_core, mixed_integer_ops)
)]

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests;

use core::cmp;
#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // for unstable feature: size hint optimization
use core::convert::TryInto;
use core::fmt;
use core::mem::replace;
use core::ops::{Deref, DerefMut};
use core::slice;
use core::str;

extern crate alloc;
#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // for unstable feature: size hint optimization
use alloc::boxed::Box;
use alloc::string::String;
use alloc::vec::Vec;

// TODO: port & export more items from Rust std::io
pub use self::cursor::Cursor;
pub use self::error::{Error, ErrorKind, Result};
pub use self::readbuf::ReadBuf;

mod cursor;
mod error;
mod impls;
pub mod prelude;
mod readbuf;

mod sys;

// TODO: support limited features with no use of `alloc` crate
#[cfg(not(any(doc, feature = "alloc")))]
compile_error!("`alloc` feature is currently required for this library to build");

#[cfg(all(feature = "unix-iovec", not(unix)))]
compile_error!("`unix-iovec` feature requires a Unix platform");

struct Guard<'a> {
    buf: &'a mut Vec<u8>,
    len: usize,
}

impl Drop for Guard<'_> {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        unsafe {
            self.buf.set_len(self.len);
        }
    }
}

// Several `read_to_string` and `read_line` methods in the standard library will
// append data into a `String` buffer, but we need to be pretty careful when
// doing this. The implementation will just call `.as_mut_vec()` and then
// delegate to a byte-oriented reading method, but we must ensure that when
// returning we never leave `buf` in a state such that it contains invalid UTF-8
// in its bounds.
//
// To this end, we use an RAII guard (to protect against panics) which updates
// the length of the string when it is dropped. This guard initially truncates
// the string to the prior length and only after we've validated that the
// new contents are valid UTF-8 do we allow it to set a longer length.
//
// The unsafety in this function is twofold:
//
// 1. We're looking at the raw bytes of `buf`, so we take on the burden of UTF-8
//    checks.
// 2. We're passing a raw buffer to the function `f`, and it is expected that
//    the function only *appends* bytes to the buffer. We'll get undefined
//    behavior if existing bytes are overwritten to have non-UTF-8 data.
pub(crate) unsafe fn append_to_string<F>(buf: &mut String, f: F) -> Result<usize>
where
    F: FnOnce(&mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<usize>,
{
    let mut g = Guard { len: buf.len(), buf: buf.as_mut_vec() };
    let ret = f(g.buf);
    if str::from_utf8(&g.buf[g.len..]).is_err() {
        ret.and_then(|_| {
            Err(Error::new_const(ErrorKind::InvalidData, &"stream did not contain valid UTF-8"))
        })
    } else {
        g.len = g.buf.len();
        ret
    }
}

// This uses an adaptive system to extend the vector when it fills. We want to
// avoid paying to allocate and zero a huge chunk of memory if the reader only
// has 4 bytes while still making large reads if the reader does have a ton
// of data to return. Simply tacking on an extra DEFAULT_BUF_SIZE space every
// time is 4,500 times (!) slower than a default reservation size of 32 if the
// reader has a very small amount of data to return.
pub(crate) fn default_read_to_end<R: Read + ?Sized>(r: &mut R, buf: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<usize> {
    let start_len = buf.len();
    let start_cap = buf.capacity();

    let mut initialized = 0; // Extra initialized bytes from previous loop iteration
    loop {
        if buf.len() == buf.capacity() {
            buf.reserve(32); // buf is full, need more space
        }

        let mut read_buf = ReadBuf::uninit(buf.spare_capacity_mut());

        // SAFETY: These bytes were initialized but not filled in the previous loop
        unsafe {
            read_buf.assume_init(initialized);
        }

        match r.read_buf(&mut read_buf) {
            Ok(()) => {}
            Err(e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => continue,
            Err(e) => return Err(e),
        }

        if read_buf.filled_len() == 0 {
            return Ok(buf.len() - start_len);
        }

        // store how much was initialized but not filled
        initialized = read_buf.initialized_len() - read_buf.filled_len();
        let new_len = read_buf.filled_len() + buf.len();

        // SAFETY: ReadBuf's invariants mean this much memory is init
        unsafe {
            buf.set_len(new_len);
        }

        if buf.len() == buf.capacity() && buf.capacity() == start_cap {
            // The buffer might be an exact fit. Let's read into a probe buffer
            // and see if it returns `Ok(0)`. If so, we've avoided an
            // unnecessary doubling of the capacity. But if not, append the
            // probe buffer to the primary buffer and let its capacity grow.
            let mut probe = [0u8; 32];

            loop {
                match r.read(&mut probe) {
                    Ok(0) => return Ok(buf.len() - start_len),
                    Ok(n) => {
                        buf.extend_from_slice(&probe[..n]);
                        break;
                    }
                    Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => continue,
                    Err(e) => return Err(e),
                }
            }
        }
    }
}

pub(crate) fn default_read_to_string<R: Read + ?Sized>(
    r: &mut R,
    buf: &mut String,
) -> Result<usize> {
    // Note that we do *not* call `r.read_to_end()` here. We are passing
    // `&mut Vec<u8>` (the raw contents of `buf`) into the `read_to_end`
    // method to fill it up. An arbitrary implementation could overwrite the
    // entire contents of the vector, not just append to it (which is what
    // we are expecting).
    //
    // To prevent extraneously checking the UTF-8-ness of the entire buffer
    // we pass it to our hardcoded `default_read_to_end` implementation which
    // we know is guaranteed to only read data into the end of the buffer.
    unsafe { append_to_string(buf, |b| default_read_to_end(r, b)) }
}

pub(crate) fn default_read_vectored<F>(read: F, bufs: &mut [IoSliceMut<'_>]) -> Result<usize>
where
    F: FnOnce(&mut [u8]) -> Result<usize>,
{
    let buf = bufs.iter_mut().find(|b| !b.is_empty()).map_or(&mut [][..], |b| &mut **b);
    read(buf)
}

pub(crate) fn default_write_vectored<F>(write: F, bufs: &[IoSlice<'_>]) -> Result<usize>
where
    F: FnOnce(&[u8]) -> Result<usize>,
{
    let buf = bufs.iter().find(|b| !b.is_empty()).map_or(&[][..], |b| &**b);
    write(buf)
}

pub(crate) fn default_read_exact<R: Read + ?Sized>(this: &mut R, mut buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<()> {
    while !buf.is_empty() {
        match this.read(buf) {
            Ok(0) => break,
            Ok(n) => {
                let tmp = buf;
                buf = &mut tmp[n..];
            }
            Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => {}
            Err(e) => return Err(e),
        }
    }
    if !buf.is_empty() {
        Err(Error::new_const(ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof, &"failed to fill whole buffer"))
    } else {
        Ok(())
    }
}

pub(crate) fn default_read_buf<F>(read: F, buf: &mut ReadBuf<'_>) -> Result<()>
where
    F: FnOnce(&mut [u8]) -> Result<usize>,
{
    let n = read(buf.initialize_unfilled())?;
    buf.add_filled(n);
    Ok(())
}

/// The `Read` trait allows for reading bytes from a source.
///
/// Implementors of the `Read` trait are called 'readers'.
///
/// Readers are defined by one required method, [`read()`]. Each call to [`read()`]
/// will attempt to pull bytes from this source into a provided buffer. A
/// number of other methods are implemented in terms of [`read()`], giving
/// implementors a number of ways to read bytes while only needing to implement
/// a single method.
///
/// Readers are intended to be composable with one another. Many implementors
/// throughout [`std::io`] take and provide types which implement the `Read`
/// trait.
///
/// Please note that each call to [`read()`] may involve a system call, and
/// therefore, using something that implements [`BufRead`], such as
/// [`BufReader`], will be more efficient.
///
/// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
/// # Example code
///
/// Read from [`&str`] - possible because [`&[u8]`][prim@slice] is enhanced with impl of `Read`:
///
/// ```no_run
/// use portable_io::{self as io, Read};
///
/// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
///     let mut b = "This string will be read".as_bytes();
///     let mut buffer = [0; 10];
///
///     // read up to 10 bytes
///     b.read(&mut buffer)?;
///
///     // etc... it works exactly as a File does!
///     Ok(())
/// }
/// ```
///
/// [`&str`]: prim@str
// TODO: add cfg_attr to document as notable trait
pub trait Read {
    /// Pull some bytes from this source into the specified buffer, returning
    /// how many bytes were read.
    ///
    /// This function does not provide any guarantees about whether it blocks
    /// waiting for data, but if an object needs to block for a read and cannot,
    /// it will typically signal this via an [`Err`] return value.
    ///
    /// If the return value of this method is [`Ok(n)`], then implementations must
    /// guarantee that `0 <= n <= buf.len()`. A nonzero `n` value indicates
    /// that the buffer `buf` has been filled in with `n` bytes of data from this
    /// source. If `n` is `0`, then it can indicate one of two scenarios:
    ///
    /// 1. This reader has reached its "end of file" and will likely no longer
    ///    be able to produce bytes. Note that this does not mean that the
    ///    reader will *always* no longer be able to produce bytes. As an example,
    ///    on Linux, this method will call the `recv` syscall for a [`TcpStream`],
    ///    where returning zero indicates the connection was shut down correctly. While
    ///    for [`File`], it is possible to reach the end of file and get zero as result,
    ///    but if more data is appended to the file, future calls to `read` will return
    ///    more data.
    /// 2. The buffer specified was 0 bytes in length.
    ///
    /// It is not an error if the returned value `n` is smaller than the buffer size,
    /// even when the reader is not at the end of the stream yet.
    /// This may happen for example because fewer bytes are actually available right now
    /// (e. g. being close to end-of-file) or because read() was interrupted by a signal.
    ///
    /// As this trait is safe to implement, callers cannot rely on `n <= buf.len()` for safety.
    /// Extra care needs to be taken when `unsafe` functions are used to access the read bytes.
    /// Callers have to ensure that no unchecked out-of-bounds accesses are possible even if
    /// `n > buf.len()`.
    ///
    /// No guarantees are provided about the contents of `buf` when this
    /// function is called, implementations cannot rely on any property of the
    /// contents of `buf` being true. It is recommended that *implementations*
    /// only write data to `buf` instead of reading its contents.
    ///
    /// Correspondingly, however, *callers* of this method must not assume any guarantees
    /// about how the implementation uses `buf`. The trait is safe to implement,
    /// so it is possible that the code that's supposed to write to the buffer might also read
    /// from it. It is your responsibility to make sure that `buf` is initialized
    /// before calling `read`. Calling `read` with an uninitialized `buf` (of the kind one
    /// obtains via [`MaybeUninit<T>`]) is not safe, and can lead to undefined behavior.
    ///
    /// [`MaybeUninit<T>`]: crate::mem::MaybeUninit
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If this function encounters any form of I/O or other error, an error
    /// variant will be returned. If an error is returned then it must be
    /// guaranteed that no bytes were read.
    ///
    /// An error of the [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind is non-fatal and the read
    /// operation should be retried if there is nothing else to do.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn read(&mut self, buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<usize>;

    /// Like `read`, except that it reads into a slice of buffers.
    ///
    /// Data is copied to fill each buffer in order, with the final buffer
    /// written to possibly being only partially filled. This method must
    /// behave equivalently to a single call to `read` with concatenated
    /// buffers.
    ///
    /// The default implementation calls `read` with either the first nonempty
    /// buffer provided, or an empty one if none exists.
    fn read_vectored(&mut self, bufs: &mut [IoSliceMut<'_>]) -> Result<usize> {
        default_read_vectored(|b| self.read(b), bufs)
    }

    /// Determines if this `Read`er has an efficient `read_vectored`
    /// implementation.
    ///
    /// If a `Read`er does not override the default `read_vectored`
    /// implementation, code using it may want to avoid the method all together
    /// and coalesce writes into a single buffer for higher performance.
    ///
    /// The default implementation returns `false`.
    fn is_read_vectored(&self) -> bool {
        false
    }

    /// Read all bytes until EOF in this source, placing them into `buf`.
    ///
    /// All bytes read from this source will be appended to the specified buffer
    /// `buf`. This function will continuously call [`read()`] to append more data to
    /// `buf` until [`read()`] returns either [`Ok(0)`] or an error of
    /// non-[`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind.
    ///
    /// If successful, this function will return the total number of bytes read.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If this function encounters an error of the kind
    /// [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] then the error is ignored and the operation
    /// will continue.
    ///
    /// If any other read error is encountered then this function immediately
    /// returns. Any bytes which have already been read will be appended to
    /// `buf`.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn read_to_end(&mut self, buf: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<usize> {
        default_read_to_end(self, buf)
    }

    /// Read all bytes until EOF in this source, appending them to `buf`.
    ///
    /// If successful, this function returns the number of bytes which were read
    /// and appended to `buf`.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If the data in this stream is *not* valid UTF-8 then an error is
    /// returned and `buf` is unchanged.
    ///
    /// See [`read_to_end`] for other error semantics.
    ///
    /// [`read_to_end`]: Read::read_to_end
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn read_to_string(&mut self, buf: &mut String) -> Result<usize> {
        default_read_to_string(self, buf)
    }

    /// Read the exact number of bytes required to fill `buf`.
    ///
    /// This function reads as many bytes as necessary to completely fill the
    /// specified buffer `buf`.
    ///
    /// No guarantees are provided about the contents of `buf` when this
    /// function is called, implementations cannot rely on any property of the
    /// contents of `buf` being true. It is recommended that implementations
    /// only write data to `buf` instead of reading its contents. The
    /// documentation on [`read`] has a more detailed explanation on this
    /// subject.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If this function encounters an error of the kind
    /// [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] then the error is ignored and the operation
    /// will continue.
    ///
    /// If this function encounters an "end of file" before completely filling
    /// the buffer, it returns an error of the kind [`ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof`].
    /// The contents of `buf` are unspecified in this case.
    ///
    /// If any other read error is encountered then this function immediately
    /// returns. The contents of `buf` are unspecified in this case.
    ///
    /// If this function returns an error, it is unspecified how many bytes it
    /// has read, but it will never read more than would be necessary to
    /// completely fill the buffer.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn read_exact(&mut self, buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<()> {
        default_read_exact(self, buf)
    }

    /// Pull some bytes from this source into the specified buffer.
    ///
    /// This is equivalent to the [`read`](Read::read) method, except that it is passed a [`ReadBuf`] rather than `[u8]` to allow use
    /// with uninitialized buffers. The new data will be appended to any existing contents of `buf`.
    ///
    /// The default implementation delegates to `read`.
    fn read_buf(&mut self, buf: &mut ReadBuf<'_>) -> Result<()> {
        default_read_buf(|b| self.read(b), buf)
    }

    /// Read the exact number of bytes required to fill `buf`.
    ///
    /// This is equivalent to the [`read_exact`](Read::read_exact) method, except that it is passed a [`ReadBuf`] rather than `[u8]` to
    /// allow use with uninitialized buffers.
    fn read_buf_exact(&mut self, buf: &mut ReadBuf<'_>) -> Result<()> {
        while buf.remaining() > 0 {
            let prev_filled = buf.filled().len();
            match self.read_buf(buf) {
                Ok(()) => {}
                Err(e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => continue,
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            }

            if buf.filled().len() == prev_filled {
                return Err(Error::new(ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof, "failed to fill buffer"));
            }
        }

        Ok(())
    }

    /// Creates a "by reference" adaptor for this instance of `Read`.
    ///
    /// The returned adapter also implements `Read` and will simply borrow this
    /// current reader.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn by_ref(&mut self) -> &mut Self
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        self
    }

    /// Transforms this `Read` instance to an [`Iterator`] over its bytes.
    ///
    /// The returned type implements [`Iterator`] where the [`Item`] is
    /// <code>[Result]<[u8], [io::Error]></code>.
    /// The yielded item is [`Ok`] if a byte was successfully read and [`Err`]
    /// otherwise. EOF is mapped to returning [`None`] from this iterator.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn bytes(self) -> Bytes<Self>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        Bytes { inner: self }
    }

    /// Creates an adapter which will chain this stream with another.
    ///
    /// The returned `Read` instance will first read all bytes from this object
    /// until EOF is encountered. Afterwards the output is equivalent to the
    /// output of `next`.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn chain<R: Read>(self, next: R) -> Chain<Self, R>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        Chain { first: self, second: next, done_first: false }
    }

    /// Creates an adapter which will read at most `limit` bytes from it.
    ///
    /// This function returns a new instance of `Read` which will read at most
    /// `limit` bytes, after which it will always return EOF ([`Ok(0)`]). Any
    /// read errors will not count towards the number of bytes read and future
    /// calls to [`read()`] may succeed.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn take(self, limit: u64) -> Take<Self>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        Take { inner: self, limit }
    }
}

/// Read all bytes from a [reader][Read] into a new [`String`].
///
/// This is a convenience function for [`Read::read_to_string`]. Using this
/// function avoids having to create a variable first and provides more type
/// safety since you can only get the buffer out if there were no errors. (If you
/// use [`Read::read_to_string`] you have to remember to check whether the read
/// succeeded because otherwise your buffer will be empty or only partially full.)
///
/// # Performance
///
/// The downside of this function's increased ease of use and type safety is
/// that it gives you less control over performance. For example, you can't
/// pre-allocate memory like you can using [`String::with_capacity`] and
/// [`Read::read_to_string`]. Also, you can't re-use the buffer if an error
/// occurs while reading.
///
/// In many cases, this function's performance will be adequate and the ease of use
/// and type safety tradeoffs will be worth it. However, there are cases where you
/// need more control over performance, and in those cases you should definitely use
/// [`Read::read_to_string`] directly.
///
/// Note that in some special cases, such as when reading files, this function will
/// pre-allocate memory based on the size of the input it is reading. In those
/// cases, the performance should be as good as if you had used
/// [`Read::read_to_string`] with a manually pre-allocated buffer.
///
/// # Errors
///
/// This function forces you to handle errors because the output (the `String`)
/// is wrapped in a [`Result`]. See [`Read::read_to_string`] for the errors
/// that can occur. If any error occurs, you will get an [`Err`], so you
/// don't have to worry about your buffer being empty or partially full.
///
/// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE STDIN -->
pub fn read_to_string<R: Read>(reader: &mut R) -> Result<String> {
    let mut buf = String::new();
    reader.read_to_string(&mut buf)?;
    Ok(buf)
}

/// A buffer type used with `Read::read_vectored`.
///
/// It is semantically a wrapper around an `&mut [u8]`, but is guaranteed to be
/// ABI compatible with the `iovec` type on Unix platforms and `WSABUF` on
/// Windows.
#[repr(transparent)]
pub struct IoSliceMut<'a>(sys::io::IoSliceMut<'a>);

unsafe impl<'a> Send for IoSliceMut<'a> {}

unsafe impl<'a> Sync for IoSliceMut<'a> {}

impl<'a> fmt::Debug for IoSliceMut<'a> {
    fn fmt(&self, fmt: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        fmt::Debug::fmt(self.0.as_slice(), fmt)
    }
}

impl<'a> IoSliceMut<'a> {
    /// Creates a new `IoSliceMut` wrapping a byte slice.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics on Windows if the slice is larger than 4GB.
    #[inline]
    pub fn new(buf: &'a mut [u8]) -> IoSliceMut<'a> {
        IoSliceMut(sys::io::IoSliceMut::new(buf))
    }

    /// Advance the internal cursor of the slice.
    ///
    /// Also see [`IoSliceMut::advance_slices`] to advance the cursors of
    /// multiple buffers.
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use core::ops::Deref;
    /// use portable_io::IoSliceMut;
    ///
    /// let mut data = [1; 8];
    /// let mut buf = IoSliceMut::new(&mut data);
    ///
    /// // Mark 3 bytes as read.
    /// buf.advance(3);
    /// assert_eq!(buf.deref(), [1; 5].as_ref());
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn advance(&mut self, n: usize) {
        self.0.advance(n)
    }

    /// Advance the internal cursor of the slices.
    ///
    /// # Notes
    ///
    /// Elements in the slice may be modified if the cursor is not advanced to
    /// the end of the slice. For example if we have a slice of buffers with 2
    /// `IoSliceMut`s, both of length 8, and we advance the cursor by 10 bytes
    /// the first `IoSliceMut` will be untouched however the second will be
    /// modified to remove the first 2 bytes (10 - 8).
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use core::ops::Deref;
    /// use portable_io::IoSliceMut;
    ///
    /// let mut buf1 = [1; 8];
    /// let mut buf2 = [2; 16];
    /// let mut buf3 = [3; 8];
    /// let mut bufs = &mut [
    ///     IoSliceMut::new(&mut buf1),
    ///     IoSliceMut::new(&mut buf2),
    ///     IoSliceMut::new(&mut buf3),
    /// ][..];
    ///
    /// // Mark 10 bytes as read.
    /// IoSliceMut::advance_slices(&mut bufs, 10);
    /// assert_eq!(bufs[0].deref(), [2; 14].as_ref());
    /// assert_eq!(bufs[1].deref(), [3; 8].as_ref());
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn advance_slices(bufs: &mut &mut [IoSliceMut<'a>], n: usize) {
        // Number of buffers to remove.
        let mut remove = 0;
        // Total length of all the to be removed buffers.
        let mut accumulated_len = 0;
        for buf in bufs.iter() {
            if accumulated_len + buf.len() > n {
                break;
            } else {
                accumulated_len += buf.len();
                remove += 1;
            }
        }

        *bufs = &mut replace(bufs, &mut [])[remove..];
        if !bufs.is_empty() {
            bufs[0].advance(n - accumulated_len)
        }
    }
}

impl<'a> Deref for IoSliceMut<'a> {
    type Target = [u8];

    #[inline]
    fn deref(&self) -> &[u8] {
        self.0.as_slice()
    }
}

impl<'a> DerefMut for IoSliceMut<'a> {
    #[inline]
    fn deref_mut(&mut self) -> &mut [u8] {
        self.0.as_mut_slice()
    }
}

/// A buffer type used with `Write::write_vectored`.
///
/// It is semantically a wrapper around a `&[u8]`, but is guaranteed to be
/// ABI compatible with the `iovec` type on Unix platforms and `WSABUF` on
/// Windows.
#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
#[repr(transparent)]
pub struct IoSlice<'a>(sys::io::IoSlice<'a>);

unsafe impl<'a> Send for IoSlice<'a> {}

unsafe impl<'a> Sync for IoSlice<'a> {}

impl<'a> fmt::Debug for IoSlice<'a> {
    fn fmt(&self, fmt: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        fmt::Debug::fmt(self.0.as_slice(), fmt)
    }
}

impl<'a> IoSlice<'a> {
    /// Creates a new `IoSlice` wrapping a byte slice.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics on Windows if the slice is larger than 4GB.
    #[must_use]
    #[inline]
    pub fn new(buf: &'a [u8]) -> IoSlice<'a> {
        IoSlice(sys::io::IoSlice::new(buf))
    }

    /// Advance the internal cursor of the slice.
    ///
    /// Also see [`IoSlice::advance_slices`] to advance the cursors of multiple
    /// buffers.
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use core::ops::Deref;
    /// use portable_io::IoSlice;
    ///
    /// let mut data = [1; 8];
    /// let mut buf = IoSlice::new(&mut data);
    ///
    /// // Mark 3 bytes as read.
    /// buf.advance(3);
    /// assert_eq!(buf.deref(), [1; 5].as_ref());
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn advance(&mut self, n: usize) {
        self.0.advance(n)
    }

    /// Advance the internal cursor of the slices.
    ///
    /// # Notes
    ///
    /// Elements in the slice may be modified if the cursor is not advanced to
    /// the end of the slice. For example if we have a slice of buffers with 2
    /// `IoSlice`s, both of length 8, and we advance the cursor by 10 bytes the
    /// first `IoSlice` will be untouched however the second will be modified to
    /// remove the first 2 bytes (10 - 8).
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use core::ops::Deref;
    /// use portable_io::IoSlice;
    ///
    /// let buf1 = [1; 8];
    /// let buf2 = [2; 16];
    /// let buf3 = [3; 8];
    /// let mut bufs = &mut [
    ///     IoSlice::new(&buf1),
    ///     IoSlice::new(&buf2),
    ///     IoSlice::new(&buf3),
    /// ][..];
    ///
    /// // Mark 10 bytes as written.
    /// IoSlice::advance_slices(&mut bufs, 10);
    /// assert_eq!(bufs[0].deref(), [2; 14].as_ref());
    /// assert_eq!(bufs[1].deref(), [3; 8].as_ref());
    #[inline]
    pub fn advance_slices(bufs: &mut &mut [IoSlice<'a>], n: usize) {
        // Number of buffers to remove.
        let mut remove = 0;
        // Total length of all the to be removed buffers.
        let mut accumulated_len = 0;
        for buf in bufs.iter() {
            if accumulated_len + buf.len() > n {
                break;
            } else {
                accumulated_len += buf.len();
                remove += 1;
            }
        }

        *bufs = &mut replace(bufs, &mut [])[remove..];
        if !bufs.is_empty() {
            bufs[0].advance(n - accumulated_len)
        }
    }
}

impl<'a> Deref for IoSlice<'a> {
    type Target = [u8];

    #[inline]
    fn deref(&self) -> &[u8] {
        self.0.as_slice()
    }
}

/// A trait for objects which are byte-oriented sinks.
///
/// Implementors of the `Write` trait are sometimes called 'writers'.
///
/// Writers are defined by two required methods, [`write`] and [`flush`]:
///
/// * The [`write`] method will attempt to write some data into the object,
///   returning how many bytes were successfully written.
///
/// * The [`flush`] method is useful for adapters and explicit buffers
///   themselves for ensuring that all buffered data has been pushed out to the
///   'true sink'.
///
/// Writers are intended to be composable with one another. Many implementors
/// throughout [`std::io`] take and provide types which implement the `Write`
/// trait.
///
/// [`write`]: Write::write
/// [`flush`]: Write::flush
/// [`std::io`]: self
///
/// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
///
/// The trait also provides convenience methods like [`write_all`], which calls
/// `write` in a loop until its entire input has been written.
///
/// [`write_all`]: Write::write_all
// TODO: add cfg_attr to document as notable trait
pub trait Write {
    /// Write a buffer into this writer, returning how many bytes were written.
    ///
    /// This function will attempt to write the entire contents of `buf`, but
    /// the entire write might not succeed, or the write may also generate an
    /// error. A call to `write` represents *at most one* attempt to write to
    /// any wrapped object.
    ///
    /// Calls to `write` are not guaranteed to block waiting for data to be
    /// written, and a write which would otherwise block can be indicated through
    /// an [`Err`] variant.
    ///
    /// If the return value is [`Ok(n)`] then it must be guaranteed that
    /// `n <= buf.len()`. A return value of `0` typically means that the
    /// underlying object is no longer able to accept bytes and will likely not
    /// be able to in the future as well, or that the buffer provided is empty.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Each call to `write` may generate an I/O error indicating that the
    /// operation could not be completed. If an error is returned then no bytes
    /// in the buffer were written to this writer.
    ///
    /// It is **not** considered an error if the entire buffer could not be
    /// written to this writer.
    ///
    /// An error of the [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind is non-fatal and the
    /// write operation should be retried if there is nothing else to do.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    ///
    /// [`Ok(n)`]: Ok
    fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<usize>;

    /// Like [`write`], except that it writes from a slice of buffers.
    ///
    /// Data is copied from each buffer in order, with the final buffer
    /// read from possibly being only partially consumed. This method must
    /// behave as a call to [`write`] with the buffers concatenated would.
    ///
    /// The default implementation calls [`write`] with either the first nonempty
    /// buffer provided, or an empty one if none exists.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    ///
    /// [`write`]: Write::write
    fn write_vectored(&mut self, bufs: &[IoSlice<'_>]) -> Result<usize> {
        default_write_vectored(|b| self.write(b), bufs)
    }

    /// Determines if this `Write`r has an efficient [`write_vectored`]
    /// implementation.
    ///
    /// If a `Write`r does not override the default [`write_vectored`]
    /// implementation, code using it may want to avoid the method all together
    /// and coalesce writes into a single buffer for higher performance.
    ///
    /// The default implementation returns `false`.
    ///
    /// [`write_vectored`]: Write::write_vectored
    fn is_write_vectored(&self) -> bool {
        false
    }

    /// Flush this output stream, ensuring that all intermediately buffered
    /// contents reach their destination.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// It is considered an error if not all bytes could be written due to
    /// I/O errors or EOF being reached.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()>;

    /// Attempts to write an entire buffer into this writer.
    ///
    /// This method will continuously call [`write`] until there is no more data
    /// to be written or an error of non-[`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind is
    /// returned. This method will not return until the entire buffer has been
    /// successfully written or such an error occurs. The first error that is
    /// not of [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind generated from this method will be
    /// returned.
    ///
    /// If the buffer contains no data, this will never call [`write`].
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// This function will return the first error of
    /// non-[`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind that [`write`] returns.
    ///
    /// [`write`]: Write::write
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn write_all(&mut self, mut buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
        while !buf.is_empty() {
            match self.write(buf) {
                Ok(0) => {
                    return Err(Error::new_const(
                        ErrorKind::WriteZero,
                        &"failed to write whole buffer",
                    ));
                }
                Ok(n) => buf = &buf[n..],
                Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => {}
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            }
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Attempts to write multiple buffers into this writer.
    ///
    /// This method will continuously call [`write_vectored`] until there is no
    /// more data to be written or an error of non-[`ErrorKind::Interrupted`]
    /// kind is returned. This method will not return until all buffers have
    /// been successfully written or such an error occurs. The first error that
    /// is not of [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind generated from this method
    /// will be returned.
    ///
    /// If the buffer contains no data, this will never call [`write_vectored`].
    ///
    /// # Notes
    ///
    /// Unlike [`write_vectored`], this takes a *mutable* reference to
    /// a slice of [`IoSlice`]s, not an immutable one. That's because we need to
    /// modify the slice to keep track of the bytes already written.
    ///
    /// Once this function returns, the contents of `bufs` are unspecified, as
    /// this depends on how many calls to [`write_vectored`] were necessary. It is
    /// best to understand this function as taking ownership of `bufs` and to
    /// not use `bufs` afterwards. The underlying buffers, to which the
    /// [`IoSlice`]s point (but not the [`IoSlice`]s themselves), are unchanged and
    /// can be reused.
    ///
    /// [`write_vectored`]: Write::write_vectored
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// ```
    /// # fn main() -> portable_io::Result<()> {
    ///
    /// use portable_io::{Write, IoSlice};
    ///
    /// let mut writer = Vec::new();
    /// let bufs = &mut [
    ///     IoSlice::new(&[1]),
    ///     IoSlice::new(&[2, 3]),
    ///     IoSlice::new(&[4, 5, 6]),
    /// ];
    ///
    /// writer.write_all_vectored(bufs)?;
    /// // Note: the contents of `bufs` is now undefined, see the Notes section.
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(writer, &[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]);
    /// # Ok(()) }
    /// ```
    fn write_all_vectored(&mut self, mut bufs: &mut [IoSlice<'_>]) -> Result<()> {
        // Guarantee that bufs is empty if it contains no data,
        // to avoid calling write_vectored if there is no data to be written.
        IoSlice::advance_slices(&mut bufs, 0);
        while !bufs.is_empty() {
            match self.write_vectored(bufs) {
                Ok(0) => {
                    return Err(Error::new_const(
                        ErrorKind::WriteZero,
                        &"failed to write whole buffer",
                    ));
                }
                Ok(n) => IoSlice::advance_slices(&mut bufs, n),
                Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => {}
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            }
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Writes a formatted string into this writer, returning any error
    /// encountered.
    ///
    /// This method is primarily used to interface with the
    /// [`format_args!()`] macro, and it is rare that this should
    /// explicitly be called. The [`write!()`] macro should be favored to
    /// invoke this method instead.
    ///
    /// This function internally uses the [`write_all`] method on
    /// this trait and hence will continuously write data so long as no errors
    /// are received. This also means that partial writes are not indicated in
    /// this signature.
    ///
    /// [`write_all`]: Write::write_all
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// This function will return any I/O error reported while formatting.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments<'_>) -> Result<()> {
        // Create a shim which translates a Write to a fmt::Write and saves
        // off I/O errors. instead of discarding them
        struct Adapter<'a, T: ?Sized + 'a> {
            inner: &'a mut T,
            error: Result<()>,
        }

        impl<T: Write + ?Sized> fmt::Write for Adapter<'_, T> {
            fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result {
                match self.inner.write_all(s.as_bytes()) {
                    Ok(()) => Ok(()),
                    Err(e) => {
                        self.error = Err(e);
                        Err(fmt::Error)
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        let mut output = Adapter { inner: self, error: Ok(()) };
        match fmt::write(&mut output, fmt) {
            Ok(()) => Ok(()),
            Err(..) => {
                // check if the error came from the underlying `Write` or not
                if output.error.is_err() {
                    output.error
                } else {
                    Err(Error::new_const(ErrorKind::Uncategorized, &"formatter error"))
                }
            }
        }
    }

    /// Creates a "by reference" adapter for this instance of `Write`.
    ///
    /// The returned adapter also implements `Write` and will simply borrow this
    /// current writer.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn by_ref(&mut self) -> &mut Self
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        self
    }
}

/// The `Seek` trait provides a cursor which can be moved within a stream of
/// bytes.
///
/// The stream typically has a fixed size, allowing seeking relative to either
/// end or the current offset.
///
/// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
pub trait Seek {
    /// Seek to an offset, in bytes, in a stream.
    ///
    /// A seek beyond the end of a stream is allowed, but behavior is defined
    /// by the implementation.
    ///
    /// If the seek operation completed successfully,
    /// this method returns the new position from the start of the stream.
    /// That position can be used later with [`SeekFrom::Start`].
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Seeking can fail, for example because it might involve flushing a buffer.
    ///
    /// Seeking to a negative offset is considered an error.
    fn seek(&mut self, pos: SeekFrom) -> Result<u64>;

    /// Rewind to the beginning of a stream.
    ///
    /// This is a convenience method, equivalent to `seek(SeekFrom::Start(0))`.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Rewinding can fail, for example because it might involve flushing a buffer.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn rewind(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
        self.seek(SeekFrom::Start(0))?;
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Returns the length of this stream (in bytes).
    ///
    /// This method is implemented using up to three seek operations. If this
    /// method returns successfully, the seek position is unchanged (i.e. the
    /// position before calling this method is the same as afterwards).
    /// However, if this method returns an error, the seek position is
    /// unspecified.
    ///
    /// If you need to obtain the length of *many* streams and you don't care
    /// about the seek position afterwards, you can reduce the number of seek
    /// operations by simply calling `seek(SeekFrom::End(0))` and using its
    /// return value (it is also the stream length).
    ///
    /// Note that length of a stream can change over time (for example, when
    /// data is appended to a file). So calling this method multiple times does
    /// not necessarily return the same length each time.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn stream_len(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
        let old_pos = self.stream_position()?;
        let len = self.seek(SeekFrom::End(0))?;

        // Avoid seeking a third time when we were already at the end of the
        // stream. The branch is usually way cheaper than a seek operation.
        if old_pos != len {
            self.seek(SeekFrom::Start(old_pos))?;
        }

        Ok(len)
    }

    /// Returns the current seek position from the start of the stream.
    ///
    /// This is equivalent to `self.seek(SeekFrom::Current(0))`.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    fn stream_position(&mut self) -> Result<u64> {
        self.seek(SeekFrom::Current(0))
    }
}

/// Enumeration of possible methods to seek within an I/O object.
///
/// It is used by the [`Seek`] trait.
#[derive(Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Debug)]
pub enum SeekFrom {
    /// Sets the offset to the provided number of bytes.
    Start(u64),

    /// Sets the offset to the size of this object plus the specified number of
    /// bytes.
    ///
    /// It is possible to seek beyond the end of an object, but it's an error to
    /// seek before byte 0.
    End(i64),

    /// Sets the offset to the current position plus the specified number of
    /// bytes.
    ///
    /// It is possible to seek beyond the end of an object, but it's an error to
    /// seek before byte 0.
    Current(i64),
}

fn read_until<R: BufRead + ?Sized>(r: &mut R, delim: u8, buf: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<usize> {
    let mut read = 0;
    loop {
        let (done, used) = {
            let available = match r.fill_buf() {
                Ok(n) => n,
                Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => continue,
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            };
            match memchr::memchr(delim, available) {
                Some(i) => {
                    buf.extend_from_slice(&available[..=i]);
                    (true, i + 1)
                }
                None => {
                    buf.extend_from_slice(available);
                    (false, available.len())
                }
            }
        };
        r.consume(used);
        read += used;
        if done || used == 0 {
            return Ok(read);
        }
    }
}

/// A `BufRead` is a type of `Read`er which has an internal buffer, allowing it
/// to perform extra ways of reading.
///
/// For example, reading line-by-line is inefficient without using a buffer, so
/// if you want to read by line, you'll need `BufRead`, which includes a
/// [`read_line`] method as well as a [`lines`] iterator.
///
/// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
///
/// If you have something that implements [`Read`], you can use the [`BufReader`
/// type][`BufReader`] to turn it into a `BufRead`.
///
/// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
pub trait BufRead: Read {
    /// Returns the contents of the internal buffer, filling it with more data
    /// from the inner reader if it is empty.
    ///
    /// This function is a lower-level call. It needs to be paired with the
    /// [`consume`] method to function properly. When calling this
    /// method, none of the contents will be "read" in the sense that later
    /// calling `read` may return the same contents. As such, [`consume`] must
    /// be called with the number of bytes that are consumed from this buffer to
    /// ensure that the bytes are never returned twice.
    ///
    /// [`consume`]: BufRead::consume
    ///
    /// An empty buffer returned indicates that the stream has reached EOF.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// This function will return an I/O error if the underlying reader was
    /// read, but returned an error.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE STDIN -->
    fn fill_buf(&mut self) -> Result<&[u8]>;

    /// Tells this buffer that `amt` bytes have been consumed from the buffer,
    /// so they should no longer be returned in calls to `read`.
    ///
    /// This function is a lower-level call. It needs to be paired with the
    /// [`fill_buf`] method to function properly. This function does
    /// not perform any I/O, it simply informs this object that some amount of
    /// its buffer, returned from [`fill_buf`], has been consumed and should
    /// no longer be returned. As such, this function may do odd things if
    /// [`fill_buf`] isn't called before calling it.
    ///
    /// The `amt` must be `<=` the number of bytes in the buffer returned by
    /// [`fill_buf`].
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// Since `consume()` is meant to be used with [`fill_buf`],
    /// that method's example includes an example of `consume()`.
    ///
    /// [`fill_buf`]: BufRead::fill_buf
    fn consume(&mut self, amt: usize);

    /// Check if the underlying `Read` has any data left to be read.
    ///
    /// This function may fill the buffer to check for data,
    /// so this functions returns `Result<bool>`, not `bool`.
    ///
    /// Default implementation calls `fill_buf` and checks that
    /// returned slice is empty (which means that there is no data left,
    /// since EOF is reached).
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE STDIN -->
    fn has_data_left(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
        self.fill_buf().map(|b| !b.is_empty())
    }

    /// Read all bytes into `buf` until the delimiter `byte` or EOF is reached.
    ///
    /// This function will read bytes from the underlying stream until the
    /// delimiter or EOF is found. Once found, all bytes up to, and including,
    /// the delimiter (if found) will be appended to `buf`.
    ///
    /// If successful, this function will return the total number of bytes read.
    ///
    /// This function is blocking and should be used carefully: it is possible for
    /// an attacker to continuously send bytes without ever sending the delimiter
    /// or EOF.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// This function will ignore all instances of [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] and
    /// will otherwise return any errors returned by [`fill_buf`].
    ///
    /// If an I/O error is encountered then all bytes read so far will be
    /// present in `buf` and its length will have been adjusted appropriately.
    ///
    /// [`fill_buf`]: BufRead::fill_buf
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// [`std::io::Cursor`][`Cursor`] is a type that implements `BufRead`. In
    /// this example, we use [`Cursor`] to read all the bytes in a byte slice
    /// in hyphen delimited segments:
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use portable_io::{self as io, BufRead};
    ///
    /// let mut cursor = io::Cursor::new(b"lorem-ipsum");
    /// let mut buf = vec![];
    ///
    /// // cursor is at 'l'
    /// let num_bytes = cursor.read_until(b'-', &mut buf)
    ///     .expect("reading from cursor won't fail");
    /// assert_eq!(num_bytes, 6);
    /// assert_eq!(buf, b"lorem-");
    /// buf.clear();
    ///
    /// // cursor is at 'i'
    /// let num_bytes = cursor.read_until(b'-', &mut buf)
    ///     .expect("reading from cursor won't fail");
    /// assert_eq!(num_bytes, 5);
    /// assert_eq!(buf, b"ipsum");
    /// buf.clear();
    ///
    /// // cursor is at EOF
    /// let num_bytes = cursor.read_until(b'-', &mut buf)
    ///     .expect("reading from cursor won't fail");
    /// assert_eq!(num_bytes, 0);
    /// assert_eq!(buf, b"");
    /// ```
    fn read_until(&mut self, byte: u8, buf: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<usize> {
        read_until(self, byte, buf)
    }

    /// Read all bytes until a newline (the `0xA` byte) is reached, and append
    /// them to the provided buffer.
    ///
    /// This function will read bytes from the underlying stream until the
    /// newline delimiter (the `0xA` byte) or EOF is found. Once found, all bytes
    /// up to, and including, the delimiter (if found) will be appended to
    /// `buf`.
    ///
    /// If successful, this function will return the total number of bytes read.
    ///
    /// If this function returns [`Ok(0)`], the stream has reached EOF.
    ///
    /// This function is blocking and should be used carefully: it is possible for
    /// an attacker to continuously send bytes without ever sending a newline
    /// or EOF.
    ///
    /// [`Ok(0)`]: Ok
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// This function has the same error semantics as [`read_until`] and will
    /// also return an error if the read bytes are not valid UTF-8. If an I/O
    /// error is encountered then `buf` may contain some bytes already read in
    /// the event that all data read so far was valid UTF-8.
    ///
    /// [`read_until`]: BufRead::read_until
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// [`std::io::Cursor`][`Cursor`] is a type that implements `BufRead`. In
    /// this example, we use [`Cursor`] to read all the lines in a byte slice:
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use portable_io::{self as io, BufRead};
    ///
    /// let mut cursor = io::Cursor::new(b"foo\nbar");
    /// let mut buf = String::new();
    ///
    /// // cursor is at 'f'
    /// let num_bytes = cursor.read_line(&mut buf)
    ///     .expect("reading from cursor won't fail");
    /// assert_eq!(num_bytes, 4);
    /// assert_eq!(buf, "foo\n");
    /// buf.clear();
    ///
    /// // cursor is at 'b'
    /// let num_bytes = cursor.read_line(&mut buf)
    ///     .expect("reading from cursor won't fail");
    /// assert_eq!(num_bytes, 3);
    /// assert_eq!(buf, "bar");
    /// buf.clear();
    ///
    /// // cursor is at EOF
    /// let num_bytes = cursor.read_line(&mut buf)
    ///     .expect("reading from cursor won't fail");
    /// assert_eq!(num_bytes, 0);
    /// assert_eq!(buf, "");
    /// ```
    fn read_line(&mut self, buf: &mut String) -> Result<usize> {
        // Note that we are not calling the `.read_until` method here, but
        // rather our hardcoded implementation. For more details as to why, see
        // the comments in `read_to_end`.
        unsafe { append_to_string(buf, |b| read_until(self, b'\n', b)) }
    }

    /// Returns an iterator over the contents of this reader split on the byte
    /// `byte`.
    ///
    /// The iterator returned from this function will return instances of
    /// <code>[io::Result]<[Vec]\<u8>></code>. Each vector returned will *not* have
    /// the delimiter byte at the end.
    ///
    /// This function will yield errors whenever [`read_until`] would have
    /// also yielded an error.
    ///
    /// [io::Result]: self::Result "io::Result"
    /// [`read_until`]: BufRead::read_until
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// [`std::io::Cursor`][`Cursor`] is a type that implements `BufRead`. In
    /// this example, we use [`Cursor`] to iterate over all hyphen delimited
    /// segments in a byte slice
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use portable_io::{self as io, BufRead};
    ///
    /// let cursor = io::Cursor::new(b"lorem-ipsum-dolor");
    ///
    /// let mut split_iter = cursor.split(b'-').map(|l| l.unwrap());
    /// assert_eq!(split_iter.next(), Some(b"lorem".to_vec()));
    /// assert_eq!(split_iter.next(), Some(b"ipsum".to_vec()));
    /// assert_eq!(split_iter.next(), Some(b"dolor".to_vec()));
    /// assert_eq!(split_iter.next(), None);
    /// ```
    fn split(self, byte: u8) -> Split<Self>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        Split { buf: self, delim: byte }
    }

    /// Returns an iterator over the lines of this reader.
    ///
    /// The iterator returned from this function will yield instances of
    /// <code>[io::Result]<[String]></code>. Each string returned will *not* have a newline
    /// byte (the `0xA` byte) or `CRLF` (`0xD`, `0xA` bytes) at the end.
    ///
    /// [io::Result]: self::Result "io::Result"
    ///
    /// <!-- UPDATED TITLE in this fork to avoid singular vs plural issue - TODO PROPOSE UPDATE IN UPSTREAM RUST -->
    /// # Example code
    ///
    /// [`std::io::Cursor`][`Cursor`] is a type that implements `BufRead`. In
    /// this example, we use [`Cursor`] to iterate over all the lines in a byte
    /// slice.
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use portable_io::{self as io, BufRead};
    ///
    /// let cursor = io::Cursor::new(b"lorem\nipsum\r\ndolor");
    ///
    /// let mut lines_iter = cursor.lines().map(|l| l.unwrap());
    /// assert_eq!(lines_iter.next(), Some(String::from("lorem")));
    /// assert_eq!(lines_iter.next(), Some(String::from("ipsum")));
    /// assert_eq!(lines_iter.next(), Some(String::from("dolor")));
    /// assert_eq!(lines_iter.next(), None);
    /// ```
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Each line of the iterator has the same error semantics as [`BufRead::read_line`].
    fn lines(self) -> Lines<Self>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        Lines { buf: self }
    }
}

/// Adapter to chain together two readers.
///
/// This struct is generally created by calling [`chain`] on a reader.
/// Please see the documentation of [`chain`] for more details.
///
/// [`chain`]: Read::chain
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Chain<T, U> {
    first: T,
    second: U,
    done_first: bool,
}

impl<T, U> Chain<T, U> {
    /// Consumes the `Chain`, returning the wrapped readers.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    pub fn into_inner(self) -> (T, U) {
        (self.first, self.second)
    }

    /// Gets references to the underlying readers in this `Chain`.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    pub fn get_ref(&self) -> (&T, &U) {
        (&self.first, &self.second)
    }

    /// Gets mutable references to the underlying readers in this `Chain`.
    ///
    /// Care should be taken to avoid modifying the internal I/O state of the
    /// underlying readers as doing so may corrupt the internal state of this
    /// `Chain`.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    pub fn get_mut(&mut self) -> (&mut T, &mut U) {
        (&mut self.first, &mut self.second)
    }
}

impl<T: Read, U: Read> Read for Chain<T, U> {
    fn read(&mut self, buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<usize> {
        if !self.done_first {
            match self.first.read(buf)? {
                0 if !buf.is_empty() => self.done_first = true,
                n => return Ok(n),
            }
        }
        self.second.read(buf)
    }

    fn read_vectored(&mut self, bufs: &mut [IoSliceMut<'_>]) -> Result<usize> {
        if !self.done_first {
            match self.first.read_vectored(bufs)? {
                0 if bufs.iter().any(|b| !b.is_empty()) => self.done_first = true,
                n => return Ok(n),
            }
        }
        self.second.read_vectored(bufs)
    }
}

impl<T: BufRead, U: BufRead> BufRead for Chain<T, U> {
    fn fill_buf(&mut self) -> Result<&[u8]> {
        if !self.done_first {
            match self.first.fill_buf()? {
                buf if buf.is_empty() => {
                    self.done_first = true;
                }
                buf => return Ok(buf),
            }
        }
        self.second.fill_buf()
    }

    fn consume(&mut self, amt: usize) {
        if !self.done_first { self.first.consume(amt) } else { self.second.consume(amt) }
    }
}

#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // unstable feature: size hint optimization (requires Rust nightly for min_specialization)
impl<T, U> SizeHint for Chain<T, U> {
    #[inline]
    fn lower_bound(&self) -> usize {
        SizeHint::lower_bound(&self.first) + SizeHint::lower_bound(&self.second)
    }

    #[inline]
    fn upper_bound(&self) -> Option<usize> {
        match (SizeHint::upper_bound(&self.first), SizeHint::upper_bound(&self.second)) {
            (Some(first), Some(second)) => first.checked_add(second),
            _ => None,
        }
    }
}

/// Reader adapter which limits the bytes read from an underlying reader.
///
/// This struct is generally created by calling [`take`] on a reader.
/// Please see the documentation of [`take`] for more details.
///
/// [`take`]: Read::take
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Take<T> {
    inner: T,
    limit: u64,
}

impl<T> Take<T> {
    /// Returns the number of bytes that can be read before this instance will
    /// return EOF.
    ///
    /// # Note
    ///
    /// This instance may reach `EOF` after reading fewer bytes than indicated by
    /// this method if the underlying [`Read`] instance reaches EOF.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    pub fn limit(&self) -> u64 {
        self.limit
    }

    /// Sets the number of bytes that can be read before this instance will
    /// return EOF. This is the same as constructing a new `Take` instance, so
    /// the amount of bytes read and the previous limit value don't matter when
    /// calling this method.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    pub fn set_limit(&mut self, limit: u64) {
        self.limit = limit;
    }

    /// Consumes the `Take`, returning the wrapped reader.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    pub fn into_inner(self) -> T {
        self.inner
    }

    /// Gets a reference to the underlying reader.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    pub fn get_ref(&self) -> &T {
        &self.inner
    }

    /// Gets a mutable reference to the underlying reader.
    ///
    /// Care should be taken to avoid modifying the internal I/O state of the
    /// underlying reader as doing so may corrupt the internal limit of this
    /// `Take`.
    ///
    /// <!-- TODO ADD EXAMPLE CODE THAT DOES NOT USE FS -->
    pub fn get_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
        &mut self.inner
    }
}

impl<T: Read> Read for Take<T> {
    fn read(&mut self, buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<usize> {
        // Don't call into inner reader at all at EOF because it may still block
        if self.limit == 0 {
            return Ok(0);
        }

        let max = cmp::min(buf.len() as u64, self.limit) as usize;
        let n = self.inner.read(&mut buf[..max])?;
        self.limit -= n as u64;
        Ok(n)
    }

    fn read_buf(&mut self, buf: &mut ReadBuf<'_>) -> Result<()> {
        // Don't call into inner reader at all at EOF because it may still block
        if self.limit == 0 {
            return Ok(());
        }

        let prev_filled = buf.filled_len();

        if self.limit <= buf.remaining() as u64 {
            // if we just use an as cast to convert, limit may wrap around on a 32 bit target
            let limit = cmp::min(self.limit, usize::MAX as u64) as usize;

            let extra_init = cmp::min(limit as usize, buf.initialized_len() - buf.filled_len());

            // SAFETY: no uninit data is written to ibuf
            let ibuf = unsafe { &mut buf.unfilled_mut()[..limit] };

            let mut sliced_buf = ReadBuf::uninit(ibuf);

            // SAFETY: extra_init bytes of ibuf are known to be initialized
            unsafe {
                sliced_buf.assume_init(extra_init);
            }

            self.inner.read_buf(&mut sliced_buf)?;

            let new_init = sliced_buf.initialized_len();
            let filled = sliced_buf.filled_len();

            // sliced_buf / ibuf must drop here

            // SAFETY: new_init bytes of buf's unfilled buffer have been initialized
            unsafe {
                buf.assume_init(new_init);
            }

            buf.add_filled(filled);

            self.limit -= filled as u64;
        } else {
            self.inner.read_buf(buf)?;

            //inner may unfill
            self.limit -= buf.filled_len().saturating_sub(prev_filled) as u64;
        }

        Ok(())
    }
}

impl<T: BufRead> BufRead for Take<T> {
    fn fill_buf(&mut self) -> Result<&[u8]> {
        // Don't call into inner reader at all at EOF because it may still block
        if self.limit == 0 {
            return Ok(&[]);
        }

        let buf = self.inner.fill_buf()?;
        let cap = cmp::min(buf.len() as u64, self.limit) as usize;
        Ok(&buf[..cap])
    }

    fn consume(&mut self, amt: usize) {
        // Don't let callers reset the limit by passing an overlarge value
        let amt = cmp::min(amt as u64, self.limit) as usize;
        self.limit -= amt as u64;
        self.inner.consume(amt);
    }
}

#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // unstable feature: size hint optimization (requires Rust nightly for min_specialization)
impl<T> SizeHint for Take<T> {
    #[inline]
    fn lower_bound(&self) -> usize {
        cmp::min(SizeHint::lower_bound(&self.inner) as u64, self.limit) as usize
    }

    #[inline]
    fn upper_bound(&self) -> Option<usize> {
        match SizeHint::upper_bound(&self.inner) {
            Some(upper_bound) => Some(cmp::min(upper_bound as u64, self.limit) as usize),
            None => self.limit.try_into().ok(),
        }
    }
}

/// An iterator over `u8` values of a reader.
///
/// This struct is generally created by calling [`bytes`] on a reader.
/// Please see the documentation of [`bytes`] for more details.
///
/// [`bytes`]: Read::bytes
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Bytes<R> {
    inner: R,
}

impl<R: Read> Iterator for Bytes<R> {
    type Item = Result<u8>;

    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Result<u8>> {
        let mut byte = 0;
        loop {
            return match self.inner.read(slice::from_mut(&mut byte)) {
                Ok(0) => None,
                Ok(..) => Some(Ok(byte)),
                Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => continue,
                Err(e) => Some(Err(e)),
            };
        }
    }

    #[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // unstable feature: size hint optimization (requires Rust nightly for min_specialization)
    fn size_hint(&self) -> (usize, Option<usize>) {
        SizeHint::size_hint(&self.inner)
    }
}

#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // unstable feature: size hint optimization (requires Rust nightly for min_specialization)
trait SizeHint {
    fn lower_bound(&self) -> usize;

    fn upper_bound(&self) -> Option<usize>;

    fn size_hint(&self) -> (usize, Option<usize>) {
        (self.lower_bound(), self.upper_bound())
    }
}

#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // unstable feature: size hint optimization (requires Rust nightly for min_specialization)
impl<T> SizeHint for T {
    #[inline]
    default fn lower_bound(&self) -> usize {
        0
    }

    #[inline]
    default fn upper_bound(&self) -> Option<usize> {
        None
    }
}

#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // unstable feature: size hint optimization (requires Rust nightly for min_specialization)
impl<T> SizeHint for &mut T {
    #[inline]
    fn lower_bound(&self) -> usize {
        SizeHint::lower_bound(*self)
    }

    #[inline]
    fn upper_bound(&self) -> Option<usize> {
        SizeHint::upper_bound(*self)
    }
}

#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // unstable feature: size hint optimization (requires Rust nightly for min_specialization)
impl<T> SizeHint for Box<T> {
    #[inline]
    fn lower_bound(&self) -> usize {
        SizeHint::lower_bound(&**self)
    }

    #[inline]
    fn upper_bound(&self) -> Option<usize> {
        SizeHint::upper_bound(&**self)
    }
}

#[cfg(portable_io_unstable_all)] // unstable feature: size hint optimization (requires Rust nightly for min_specialization)
impl SizeHint for &[u8] {
    #[inline]
    fn lower_bound(&self) -> usize {
        self.len()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn upper_bound(&self) -> Option<usize> {
        Some(self.len())
    }
}

/// An iterator over the contents of an instance of `BufRead` split on a
/// particular byte.
///
/// This struct is generally created by calling [`split`] on a `BufRead`.
/// Please see the documentation of [`split`] for more details.
///
/// [`split`]: BufRead::split
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Split<B> {
    buf: B,
    delim: u8,
}

impl<B: BufRead> Iterator for Split<B> {
    type Item = Result<Vec<u8>>;

    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Result<Vec<u8>>> {
        let mut buf = Vec::new();
        match self.buf.read_until(self.delim, &mut buf) {
            Ok(0) => None,
            Ok(_n) => {
                if buf[buf.len() - 1] == self.delim {
                    buf.pop();
                }
                Some(Ok(buf))
            }
            Err(e) => Some(Err(e)),
        }
    }
}

/// An iterator over the lines of an instance of `BufRead`.
///
/// This struct is generally created by calling [`lines`] on a `BufRead`.
/// Please see the documentation of [`lines`] for more details.
///
/// [`lines`]: BufRead::lines
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Lines<B> {
    buf: B,
}

impl<B: BufRead> Iterator for Lines<B> {
    type Item = Result<String>;

    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Result<String>> {
        let mut buf = String::new();
        match self.buf.read_line(&mut buf) {
            Ok(0) => None,
            Ok(_n) => {
                if buf.ends_with('\n') {
                    buf.pop();
                    if buf.ends_with('\r') {
                        buf.pop();
                    }
                }
                Some(Ok(buf))
            }
            Err(e) => Some(Err(e)),
        }
    }
}