//! This document is intended to let readers start working with Rust's `Future` quickly. Some other
//! useful reading includes:
//!
//! - [The official Tokio documentation][tokio]
//! - [Zero-cost futures in Rust][zero]
//! - [Tokio Internals: Understanding Rust's asynchronous I/O framework from the bottom up][internals]
//!
//! [tokio]: https://tokio.rs/
//! [zero]: https://aturon.github.io/blog/2016/08/11/futures/
//! [internals]: https://cafbit.com/post/tokio_internals/
//!
//! # `Future`
//!
//! The [`Future` trait][future] from [`futures`][futures] represents an asynchronous operation that
//! can fail or succeed, producing a value either way. It is like an async version of
//! [`Result`][result]. This document assumes that the reader is familiar with `Result`, which is
//! [covered][result in trpl] in the second edition of *The Rust Programming Language*.
//!
//! One of the most common questions about `Future` seems to be, "how do I get the value out of it?"
//! The easiest way to do this is to call the `wait` method. This runs the `Future` in the current
//! thread, blocking all other work until it is finished.
//!
//! This is not frequently the best way to run a `Future`, because no other work can happen
//! until the `Future` completes, which completely defeats the point of using asynchronous
//! programming in the first place. However, it can be useful in unit tests, when debugging, or at
//! the top level of a simple application.
//!
//! See the section on reactors for better ways to run a `Future`.
//!
//! [future]: https://docs.rs/futures/*/futures/future/trait.Future.html
//! [futures]: https://docs.rs/futures
//! [result]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/result/
//! [result in trpl]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/second-edition/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//! extern crate future_by_example;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::Future;
//!     use future_by_example::new_example_future;
//!
//!     let future = new_example_future();
//!
//!     let expected = Ok(2);
//!     assert_eq!(future.wait(), expected);
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! A `Future` can be modified using many functions analogous to those of `Result`, such as `map`,
//! `map_err`, and `then`. Here's `map`:
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//! extern crate future_by_example;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::Future;
//!     use future_by_example::new_example_future;
//!
//!     let future = new_example_future();
//!     let mapped = future.map(|i| i * 3);
//!
//!     let expected = Ok(6);
//!     assert_eq!(mapped.wait(), expected);
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! Like a `Result`, two `Future`s can be combined using `and_then` and `or_else`:
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//! extern crate future_by_example;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::Future;
//!     use future_by_example::{new_example_future, new_example_future_err, ExampleFutureError};
//!
//!     let good = new_example_future();
//!     let bad = new_example_future_err();
//!     let both = good.and_then(|good| bad);
//!
//!     let expected = Err(ExampleFutureError::Oops);
//!     assert_eq!(both.wait(), expected);
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! `Future` also has a lot of functions that have no analog in `Result`. Because we're talking
//! about aynchronous programming, now we have to choose whether we want to run two independent
//! operations one after the other (in sequence), or at the same time (in parallel).
//!
//! For example, to get the results of two independent `Future`s, we *could* use `and_then` to run
//! them in sequence. However, that strategy is silly, because we are only making progress on one
//! `Future` at a time. Why not run both at the same time?
//!
//! `Future::join` creates a new `Future` that contains the results of two other `Future`s.
//! Importantly, both of the input `Future`s can make progress at the same time. The new `Future`
//! completes only when both input `Future`s complete. There's also `join3`, `join4` and `join5` for
//! joining larger numbers of `Future`s.
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//! extern crate future_by_example;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::Future;
//!     use futures::future::ok;
//!     use future_by_example::new_example_future;
//!
//!     let future1 = new_example_future();
//!     let future2 = new_example_future();
//!
//!     let joined = future1.join(future2);
//!     let (value1, value2) = joined.wait().unwrap();
//!     assert_eq!(value1, value2);
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! Whereas `join` completes when *both* `Future`s are complete, `select` returns whichever
//! of two `Future`s completes first. This is useful for implementing timeouts, among other things.
//! `select2` is like `select` except that the two `Future`s can have different value types.
//!
//! # Creating a `Future`
//!
//! Many libraries return `Future`s for asynchronous operations such as network calls. Sometimes you
//! may want to create your own `Future`. Implementing a `Future` from scratch is difficult, but
//! there are other ways to create futures.
//!
//! You can easily create a `Future` from a value that is already available using the `ok` function.
//! There are similiar `err` and `result` methods.
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::Future;
//!     use futures::future::ok;
//!
//!     // Here I specify the type of the error as (); otherwise the compiler can't infer it
//!     let future = ok::<_, ()>(String::from("hello"));
//!     assert_eq!(Ok(String::from("hello")), future.wait());
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! # Futures and types
//! Working with `Future`s tends to produce complex types. For example, the full type of the
//! expression below is actually:
//!
//! ```text
//! futures::Map<
//!   futures::Map<
//!     futures::Join<
//!       futures::FutureResult<u64, ()>,
//!       futures::FutureResult<u64, ()>
//!     >,
//!     [closure@src/lib.rs:...]>,
//!   [closure@src/lib.rs:...]
//! >
//! ```
//!
//! That is, for every transformation, we add another layer to the type of our `Future`! This can
//! sometimes be confusing. In particular, it can be challenging to identify ways to write out the
//! types that aren't brittle or verbose.
//!
//! In order to help the Rust compiler do type inference, below we have specify the type of
//! `expected`. It's much terser than writing the full type out, and adding another operation won't
//! break compilation.
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::future::ok;
//!     use futures::Future;
//!
//!     let expected: Result<u64, ()> = Ok(6);
//!     assert_eq!(
//!         ok(5).join(ok(7)).map(|(x, y)| x + y).map(|z| z / 2).wait(),
//!         expected
//!     )
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! Alternatively, we can make use of `_` to let the Rust compiler infer types for us.
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::future::ok;
//!     use futures::Future;
//!     use futures::Map;
//!
//!     let expected: Result<_, ()> = Ok(6);
//!     let twelve: Map<_, _> = ok(5).join(ok(7)).map(|(x, y)| x + y);
//!     assert_eq!(twelve.map(|z| z / 2).wait(), expected)
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! Rust requires that all types in function signatures are specified.
//!
//! One way to achieve this for functions that return `Future`s is to specify the full return
//! type in the function signature. However, specifying the exact type can be verbose, brittle, and
//! difficult.
//!
//! It would be nice to be able to define a function like this:
//!
//! ```text
//! fn make_twelve() -> Future<Item=u64, Error=()> {
//!     unimplemented!()
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! However, the compiler doesn't like that:
//!
//! ```text
//! error[E0277]: the trait bound `futures::Future<Item=u64, Error=()>: std::marker::Sized` is not satisfied
//!    --> src/lib.rs:119:13
//!     |
//! 119 |         let twelve = make_twelve();
//!     |             ^^^^^^ `futures::Future<Item=u64, Error=()>` does not have a constant size known at compile-time
//!     |
//!     = help: the trait `std::marker::Sized` is not implemented for `futures::Future<Item=u64, Error=()>`
//!     = note: all local variables must have a statically known size
//! ```
//!
//! This can be solved by wrapping the return type in a `Box`. One day, this will be solved in a
//! more elegant way with the currently unstable [impl Trait][impl trait] functionality.
//!
//![impl trait]: https://internals.rust-lang.org/t/help-test-impl-trait/6516
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::Future;
//!     use futures::future::ok;
//!
//!     fn make_twelve() -> Box<Future<Item=u64, Error=()>> {
//!
//!         ok(5).join(ok(7)).map(|(x, y)| x + y).boxed()
//!     }
//!
//!     let twelve = make_twelve();
//!     assert_eq!(twelve.map(|z| z / 2).wait(), Ok(6))
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! Unlike functions, closures do not require all types in their signatures to be explicitly
//! defined, so they don't need to be wrapped in a `Box`.
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use futures::Future;
//!
//!     let make_twelve = || {
//!         use futures::future::ok;
//!
//!         // We don't need to put our `Future` inside of a `Box` here.
//!         ok(5).join(ok(7)).map(|(x, y)| x + y)
//!     };
//!
//!     let expected: Result<u64, ()> = Ok(6);
//!     let twelve = make_twelve();
//!     assert_eq!(twelve.map(|z| z / 2).wait(), expected)
//! }
//! ```
//!
//! # A more powerful way to run Futures
//! Composing a bunch of `Futures` into a single `Future` and calling `wait` on it is a simple and
//! easy method as long as you only need to run a single `Future` at a time. However, if you only
//! need to run a single `Future` at a time, perhaps you don't need the `futures` crate in the first
//! place! The `futures` crate promises to efficiently juggle many concurrent tasks, so let's
//! see how that might work.
//!
//! The [`tokio-core`][tokio-core] crate has a struct called [`Core`][core] which can run multiple
//! `Future`s concurrently. `Core::run` runs a `Future`, returning its value. Unlike `Future::wait`,
//! though, it allows the `Core` to make progress on executing other `Future` objects while `run`
//! running. The `Future` in `Core::run` is the main event loop, and it may request that new
//! `Future`s be run by calling `Handle::spawn`. Note that the `Future`s run by `spawn` don't get to
//! return a value; they exist only to perform side effects.
//!
//! [tokio-core]: https://docs.rs/tokio-core
//! [core]: https://docs.rs/tokio-core/*/tokio_core/reactor/struct.Core.html
//!
//! ```rust
//! extern crate futures;
//! extern crate tokio_core;
//!
//! fn main() {
//!     use tokio_core::reactor::Core;
//!     use futures::future::lazy;
//!
//!     let mut core = Core::new().unwrap();
//!     let handle = core.handle();
//!     let future = lazy(|| {
//!         handle.spawn(lazy(|| {
//!             Ok(()) // Ok(()) implements FromResult
//!         }));
//!         Ok(2)
//!     });
//!     let expected: Result<_, ()> = Ok(2usize);
//!     assert_eq!(core.run(future), expected);
//! }
//! ```
//!
#![deny(warnings)]

extern crate futures;
extern crate tokio_core;

use futures::future::FutureResult;

// Ideally impl Trait will prevent us from needing to be aware of FutureResult.
type ExampleFuture = FutureResult<usize, ExampleFutureError>;

#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
pub enum ExampleFutureError {
    Oops,
}

pub fn new_example_future() -> ExampleFuture {
    futures::future::ok(2)
}

pub fn new_example_future_err() -> ExampleFuture {
    futures::future::err(ExampleFutureError::Oops)
}